SOCIOLOGY PAPER II (English Version)-munotes

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INDIAN SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
G. S. Ghurye (Colonial, Nationalist, Indological)
M. N. Srinivas (Structural -Functional)
Unit Structure :
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Indian Sociological Traditions
1.2 G. S. Ghurye (Introduction)
1.2.1 Biography
1.2.2 Works of Ghurye
1.2.3 Theoretical Methodology and Approach
1.2.4 Criticism
1.2.5 Summary
1.3 Structural –Functional Approach
1.3.1 Understanding Structural -Functionalism
1.3.2. Structural Functionalist Approach in India
1.4 M. N. Srinivas (Introduction)
1.4.1 Brief Biography
1.4.2 Methods and Approaches
1.4.3 Writings
1.4.4 Criticism
1.4.5 Conclusion
1.4.6 Summary
1.5 Let us sum up
1.6 Glossary
1.7 Questions
1.8 References
1.0 OBJECTIVES
●To understand the Indological approach to the study of Indian
society.
●To familiarize the students with the contribution of G. S. Ghurye.
●To understand the structural functionalist approach to the Indian
society and acquaint students with the contribution of M. N.
Srinivas.munotes.in

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21.1 INDIAN SOCIOLOGICAL TRADITIONS
Sociology as an independent social science was born in the
west in the 19th cent ury. It emerged in a short span of time as one
of the most popular disciplines today even in the East. The French,
British and the American sociologists in particular, have contributed
ag r e a td e a l to the development of sociology on a scientific basis.
Sociology had to face the challenges from other social sciences
which were not ready to recognize it as one among them. Early
sociologists very courageously and appropriately responded to
such challenges. Sociology which imbibed the scientific perspective
andaccepted positivism as its article of faith forged ahead and as a
result sociological studies and researches claimed credibility and
respectability both in the academic and administrative circles. Both
sociology and social anthropology were brought to Ind ia from
outside, particularly from Britain. British Scholars who lived in India
and later Indian scholars who were trained in Britain and U.S.A.
played a major role in the development of these two disciplines in
India. Sociology came to be recognized as an independent
discipline of academic study in India when a separate department
of sociology and civics was started under the guidance of Patrick
Geddes in the Bombay University in 1919. The Western and Indian
Scholars played an important role in the develop ment of sociology
in India. Scholars from both sides produced literature to the
enrichment of sociological knowledge. Western scholars like Verrier
Elvin, Herbert Risley, Hutton, Nesfield, B. S. Cohn, Kathleen
Gough, Sir Henry Maine, David Pocock, Charles Metcalf, Mackie
Mar ricer and others did contribute during its initial stages of
development in India. Indian scholars, though some of them often
pursued anthropological, historical, Indological and other
approaches, contributed, in no small measure, to the enrichment of
sociology as an academic discipline in India. Mention must
necessarily be made of the intellectual giants such as Radhakamal
Mukherji, K. P. Chattopadhyay , M. N. Srinivas, G. S. Ghurye, B. N.
Seal, D. P. Mukherji, Iravathi Karve, K. M. Kapa dia, A. R. Desai, S.
C. Dube, M. S. A. Rao, who did a lot to provide a good foundation
for the study of sociology in the Indian Universities.
Check Your Progress :
1. Write a note on the development of sociology in India.munotes.in

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31.2 G.S. GHURYE (COLONIAL, NATIONALIST,
INDOLOGICAL)
Introduction :
Sociology was established as an academic discipline in
India, during the late colonial period and developed rapidly after
independence with the growth of the university system and the
founding of research institutions. In writings of the history of
sociology and social anthropology in India, the institutions and
personalities of the ‘Bombay School’ must find a central place. The
Department of sociology at Bombay University was for many ye ars
the premier department in the country, and the head of the
department during this period (1924 -59), G. S. Ghurye, is often
referred to as the ‘father of Indian Sociology’. Ghurye is most
remembered for his leading role in the institutionalisation and
professionalisation of the discipline in the country. He built up the
Bombay department practically from scratch, and during his thirty -
five years as head he produced a large number of PhD and M.A.
students. Including several of the most prominent sociolog ists of
the next generation. He also founded and ran the Indian
Sociological Society and its journal, Sociological bulletin. Although
Ghurye Indological or Cultural historical approach to sociology was
soon superseded by structure –functionalism he and hi s students
left a distinctive stamp on the way in which sociology is practised in
India.
1.2.1 Biography:
GSG h u r y e ( 1 8 9 3 -1984)
Dr. Govind Sadashiv Ghurye remains an influential figure in
both his persona and writings. Born in 1893 in the Saraswat
Brahm in family in Maharashtra he died at the ripe age of 91 in
Bombay. He was a brilliant student of Sir Patrick Geddes who
started the Sociology department in University of Bombay in 1919.
He is often referred to as the Father of Indian Sociology, ‘doyen of
Indian sociologists’ for his contribution to Indian sociology. He
almost single -handedly managed to build the first generation of
Indian sociologists.
Dr. Ghurye had a brilliant academic career throughout. He
was educated and trained in Sanskrit and Sociol ogy.
Ghurye founded the “Indian Sociological Society” in 1952
and was the first editor of its journal “Sociological Bulletin”. Under
Ghurye’s guidance, sociology came to be defined as the study of
India (Hindu) civilization & the history & structure of i ts social basic
institutions -family, kinship, caste, religion –through textual &
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4Ghurye was systematic in his teaching methods. In his
teaching and research, he refused to make a distinction between
social anthropology and sociolog y. Ghurye tried to study Indian
society and culture through multiple methods. He relied on both the
empirical and textual methods for studying Indian society. Although
trained in Indology, Ghurye was not averse to the fieldwork
traditions of social and cu ltural anthropology.
He was greatly interested in world civilization and particularly
in the Hindu civilization. His focus was on the Indo -Aryan civilization
and its evolution in India. Ghurye tried to focus on various important
aspects of Indo -Aryan civ ilization like the evolution of caste, family
structure, and its relationship with Indo -European family structure,
and the evolution of religious consciousness. He was not only
concerned with past evolution but also with the contemporary
problems of his ti me. His work The Burning Cauldron of North East
India is one best example ofhis interest in contemporary issues.
Check Your Progress
1. Briefly write a note on G. S. Ghurye?
2. Elaborate on Ghurye as a teacher, Scholar and institutional?
1.2.2 Works of Ghurye:
Ghurye wrote a series of books both on sociological themes.
Here is a glimpse of some of his important books:
- Caste and race in India (1932):In Cambridge, caste was one of
the four topics of Ghurye’s PhD research and upon his r eturn he
was able to mould it into a comprehensive book. In this book, he
deals with the problem of caste and settles down to talk about
the present -day complexities of the problems. in the latest
edition of caste and race in India {1969} he added such vi tal
topics as the evolution of sub castes, sub caste and kin, caste
and politics and the position of the scheduled castes.
- The Aborigines -so called -and their future (1943):He wrote the
book to refute anthropologist’ Verrier Elwin’s thesis of isolationmunotes.in

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5oftribal groups and argued in favour of their assimilation into the
larger community.
- The Mahadev Kolis (1957): Some years later, Ghurye
published a study titled “the Mahadev Kolis” based on field data
from three districts of Maharashtra. This was his fir st major
attempt to deal with a problem at the micro level.
- Social tension in India (1968): in this book Ghurye examines in
a historical context, the deeply divisive role of culture, language
and religion in India. The book dealt with problems of nation al
integration.
- Whither India? (1974): in this book Ghurye discussed the
waves of political fragmentation, “Dravidian alienation” and
“Muslim participation”.
- “The Vidyas” and “Vedic India”: He had earlier written Vidyas
(1957) where he outlined the b ranches of knowledge as
convinced by the Hindu servants from the Vedic period.
In Vedic India (1979), he gave a detailed description of the
culture and people of the Vedic age.
Check Your Progress
1)Briefly write about the sociological writings of Ghurye?
1.2.3 Theoretical Approach and methodology :
1.2.3.1.Indology: Meaning and Definition :
"Indology is basically the use of ancient texts and scriptures
of India by the sociologists to understand the social and cultural life
in India". Indological perspective claims to understand Indian
Society through the concepts, theories and frameworks that are
closely associated with Indian Civilization. It made a claim that
Indian Society is unique in structure, function and dynamics and
cannot be associated w ith the European Society. Indology relies on
book view and culture.In both the forms Indology consists of
studying language, beliefs, ideas, customs, taboos, codes,
institutions, rituals, ceremonies and other related components of
culture.
1.2.3.2.Appro ach
Ghurye’s rigor and discipline are now legendary in Indian
sociological circles. Despite his training at Cambridge under W.H.R.
Rivers & his broad acceptance of the structural –functional
approach, Ghurye did not strictly conform to the functionalistmunotes.in

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6tradition when interpreting the complex facets of Indian society and
culture, which he chose to investigate. Ghurye had conducted
village, town and community studies.
i)Primarily Indological methods.
ii)Survey –type research involving primary data collection. He did
not conform to accepted methodological canons. Ghurye’s
flexible approach to theory and methodology in sociology and
social anthropology was born of his faith in intellectual freedom,
which is reflec ted in the diverse theoretical and methodological
approaches.
iii)Ghurye also used historical and comparative methods in his
studies which have also been followed by his students.
iv)Ghurye was initially influenced by the reality of diffusionist
approach of B ritish social anthropology but subsequently he
switched on to the studies of Indian society from Indological and
anthropological perspectives. He emphasized on the Indological
approach in the study of social and cultural life in India.
v)Ghurye utilized lit erature in sociological studies with his
profound knowledge of Sanskrit literature. He extensively
quoted from the Vedas, Shastras, epics and poetry of Kalidasa
or Bhavabhuti to shed light on the social and cultural life in
India. He made use of literature in vernacular e.g. Marathi and
cited from literature of modern writers like Bankimchandra
Chatterjee as well.
The intellectual trends that contributed to Ghurye’s
sociological imagination were British orientalism, nationalism and
diffusionism. Indology and diffusionism are usually identified as the
two major influences on his work.
His approach was Indological/cultural historical which was
later replaced by structural -functionalism.
Ghurye was the functionalist who used the historical
comparative met hods in the study of sociology to understand the
traditional customs, caste, religion, etc. He said that in order to
understand the caste system we have to understand the Hindu
religion, because caste originated from there. In Ghurye’s view,
Indian sociol ogy was produced by the spread of Brahmanical
Hinduism. Therefore, he studied religious texts and hence he was
an Indologist, anthropologist.
Orientalism emerged out of the 18thcentury European
social thought that dealt with the nature and origin of civilization,
namely the Greek and the Egyptian civilization. The early British
orientalists sought to reconstruct ancient Indian civilization throughmunotes.in

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7the study of Sanskrit texts. Because ancient Indian civilization was
ident ified with Hinduism as embodied in the Sanskrit texts.
Brahminical Hinduism became the defining feature of Indian
society. In this discourse, Muslims were seen as foreign conquerors
and despotic rulers who were responsible for all current social evils,
while the virtues of traditional Hindu government, laws and customs
were applauded. Brahminical knowledge received new legitimacy
and religion came to be regarded as the guiding principle of society.
Orientalist scholarship had a lasting effect on the modern
understanding of Indian society and history, an understanding that
is reflected in the work of Ghurye. As in orientalist construct religion
is the guiding principle of the Indian society and specifically
Brahmanical religion as prescribed in the sacred tex ts provides the
moral principles for the organisation of society.
The orientalist theory of Indian history was absorbed in
diverse ways into the emerging nationalist discourse of the 19th
and early 20thcentury. While the Aryan theory emerged out of
orientalism, its wide circulation and success in colonizing the
consciousness of the educated middle class can be attributed to its
appropriation by the nationalist ideology. This national identity is
premised on a single history, language and culture. In this
discourse, Indian culture was equated with Vedic culture, Indian
philosophy with Vedanta and Indian religion with Hinduism. The
image of Indian Muslims as outsiders and aggressive invaders in
the past and as communal separatists in the present became a
central theme of Hindu nationalist thought. The Aryan theory of
invasion theory of Indian history took a major political role in the
building of nationalism. Ghurye never questioned this construction
of history and on the contrary the idea that India is Hind ui s
reinforced by his sociology. He appropriated colonial constructions
of Indian history and society and reworked them to create a
nationalist sociology.
As a strong nationalist, Ghurye wanted India to become a
true nation -state. He hoped for the eme rgence of an integrated
nation which he saw as a solution to social tensions. He defined
social integration as a state in which individuals and groups have
common values and therefore granting cultural autonomy to
minority groups does not solve the problem of inter -group tensions.
Hence, he was opposed to the appeasement of minorities in the
name of secularism. He believed national integration should be
achieved by the absorption of diverse religious and backward
groups into mainstream Hindu society. Ghurye ’s opposition to caste
enumeration in the census stemmed from his conviction that
national unity could be achieved only through cultural homogeneity
and he criticised caste associations, caste -based movements and
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8Diffusionism emerge d as a critique of late 19thcentury
evolutionism. Anthropologists argued that biological makeup and
culture were linked and culture was carried by race. Diffusion is
usually identified as Ghurye’s major theoretical orientation. His
textual, Indological pe rspective, his historical/civilisational approach
to sociology, and his cultural nationalism show clear continuities
with the Aryan theory of Indian history as reworked by the
nationalist discourse, as well as with diffusionism.
The diffusionist influenc e can be seen in works such as
family and kin in Indo -European culture (1955), in which Ghurye
analyses the history of the human family through kinship terms and
behavioural data drawn from three ancient cultures -Indo-Aryan, the
Greek and the Latin.
The first expression of Ghurye’s civilisational perspective is
found in his work Caste and Race in India (1932) in which he
reproduces the orientalist theory of the Indo -Aryan invasion and the
racial theory of caste of the 19thcentury.
There was a great political unrest at the time colonial rule
over Bombay, which became a centre of nationalist agitation. The
Bombay govt was worried about the rise of radical political activity
in the city, especially the trade unionism of the mill worker s. They
believed that the social research on urban & industrial issues would
help to formulate policies.
Ghurye’s sociology drew heavily on the traditions of British &
German orientalism. The early British orientalists sought to
reconstruct ancient Indian civilization through the study of Sanskrit
texts. The orientalist discourse was `dialogically produced’ by
European scholars through interaction with Brahminical pundits
placing them at the centre of the social order.
Similarly, the social reform discour se, with its focus on
religion as a source of solidarity & transformation & on the
institutions of family & patriarchy as repositories of Hindu tradition,
& its attempt to reconstitute tradition with modernity, shows striking
parallels with Ghurye’s sociol ogy.
Ghurye’s search for the roots of Indian culture in the Vedic
age is reflected in several books. Much of his work centres around
traditional Hindu or Brahminical knowledge systems, religious
practices, social organization and law as reflected in the S anskrit
texts. Nationalism provided an ideological basis for the thought of
most of the first -generation Indian sociologists who attempted, in
different ways, to demonstrate the organic unity of Indian society.
Ghurye’s sociology provides a prime example o f this quest. His
thought was shaped by the experience of colonialism, themunotes.in

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9constructed memory of India's Past glory’ & the nationalist project
of future emancipation and his perspective reflected a complex mix
of nationalist, orientalist and reformist ideas.
Check Your Progress
1.In detail explain the approach adopted by Ghurye to understand
Indian Society?
2.Writean o t eo nI n d o l o g y .
1.2.4 Ghurye on Caste
Ghurye’s understanding of caste is comparative, historical
and Indological. He cons iders caste as a product of Indian culture
changing with the passage of time. In his book Caste and Race in
India he agrees with Sir Herbert Risley that caste is a product of
race that came to India along with the Aryans. Ghurye highlights six
structural f eatures of caste system:
1)Segmental Division
2)Hierarchy
3)Pollution and purity
4)Civil and religious disabilities and privileges of different sections
5)Lack of choice of occupation
6)Restrictions on marriage.
Besides the above characteristics he laid particular
emphasis on endogamy as the most important feature of the caste
system.
Check your progress
1)Write a note on features of caste as explained by G S Ghurye.munotes.in

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101.2.5. Critical Evaluation:
- Sociology under Ghurye’s leaders hip focused more institutions
such as family, kinship, and caste and religions while neglecting
the economic & political aspects of social life. Ghurye did
involve other social sciences like economics in his research.
Thus, he did not make sociology interd isciplinary.
- His brand of sociology emerges as an elaboration on a narrow
Hindu/ Brahminical nationalist ideology that advocates cultural
unity and nation building rather than political and economic
equality.
- It has been argued that most of Ghurye’s works are based on
textual and scriptural data. The choice of scripture and the way
of writing may have bias towards one section of society to
another
- The idea of Indian culture used by him is homogenising and
hegemonic, denying the historicity and fluidity of Indian
traditions.
- By asserting the civilizational unity of India and cantering it on
the culture of the Aryans and their descendants and by
extension on Hinduism and Brahmanism, Ghurye’s brand of
sociology tends to reinforce the claims of Hindu nationali sm.
- Ghurye failed to recognise domination, exploitation and conflict
as fundamental features of the Indian society due to his
immersion in Orientalist discourses about Indian civilisation.
Check Your Progress
1)Critically evaluate the approach of G.S. Ghur ye to the
understanding of Indian Society.
1.2.6 Conclusion:
Dr. G. S. Ghurye’s name has assumed importance for he
was one of the founding fathers of Indian sociology. Though Prof.
Patrick Geddes started the Department of Sociology at the Bombay
University, it was Dr. Ghurye who built and developed it on a firm
foundation. He earned a permanent name as a classical sociologist
of India and also of the East, by his scholarly contribution and
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111.2.7 Summary:
Ghurye’s record as a teacher, research guide and author are
unique. During the same period of postretirement, he published 16
books out of 31 works that were published during his lifetime .H e
wrote over 30 papers and spent considerable time in updating
several of his books which were published in revised editions. His
postretirement achievements made an impressive and noteworthy
record. There was a time when many sociology faculties in India
had at least one of his students propagating his tradition.
1.3 STRUCTURAL –FUNCTIONAL APPROACH
1.3.1 Understanding Structural -Functionalism
The key points of the functionalist perspective may be
summarized by a comparison drawn from biology. Every part of the
human body has a function that maintains the organi sm.If each part
is examined in isolation, it will not reveal the entire working and
maintenance of the part unless studied in relation to other parts
comprising the whole organism. Functionalism as an approach
adopts a similar view. Functional approach to the study of society
views society in terms of its constituent parts and their relationship
with each other in order to maintain the society as a whole. The
followers of this perspective focus on the understanding of the
ordering and patterning of the soci al world. This perspective of
society stresses on harmony and cohesion rather than conflict and
contradiction.
1.3.2. Structural -Functionalist Approach in India
The Structural -functional approach has been a predominant
approach in the study of Indian so ciety since the 1940s till the end
of the 20th century. Students of Indian society, both sociologists
and social anthropologists, have undertaken extensive analysis of
the caste and village systems in order to understand the unique
nature ofIndian society . Among the Indian scholars, G. S. Ghurye,
M. N. Srinivas and S. C. Dube may be considered to be in the
forefront of structural -functional approach in the study of Indian
society. The structural -functionalists view that the Indian society is
made up of ca stes as significant parts that collectively constitute
the social system. Castes form the units or the building blocks of
Indian social structure since they have been enduring or lasting
groups that determine the person to person institutionally defined
relationship in the society.munotes.in

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12Check your progress :
1)What is the meaning of the structural functionalist approach?
1.4.M.N. SRINIVAS (1916 -1999)
1.4.1. Life Sketch of M. N. Srinivas
Mysore Narasimhacharya Srinivas (1916 –1999) wa sa
world -renowned Indian sociologist. He was born in a Brahmin
family in Mysore and died at the age of 83 at Bangalore. Srinivas
initiated the tradition of basing macro sociological generalisations
on micro -anthropological insights and for giving a persp ective to
anthropological investigations of small -scale communities. Srinivas
was an internationally renowned scholar who obtained his degree
of MA, LLB and PhD from Bombay (now Mumbai) and DPhil from
Oxford University. Known as an institution builder, a c reative
researcher and a devoted teacher, he preferred to be a professor
rather than accepting offers of joining powerful posts in the
government.
1.4.2. Methodological approach of Srinivas
Srinivas was a proponent of the field view. Srinivas was
intere sted in understanding his countrymen not through the
Western books or through sacred books and literature but through
direct observation, field study and field experiences. He carried out
an intensive study on the Coorgs between 1940 -1942. According to
Srinivas there are basically two ways of understanding our society.
Those are: book view and field view. Book view also known as
Indology is to understand the society from the books and sacred
literature available whereas the field view is where knowledge is
obtained through field work -the empirical study to understand the
society.
Check your progress:
1)What is the difference between book view and field view?munotes.in

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131.4.3.Works & Writings
Srinivas has written extensively on many aspects of Indian
society and culture and is best known for his work on religion,
village community, caste and social change.
Srinivas produced outstanding scholarly work such as:
●Religion and Society among Coorg so fS o u t hI n d i a( 1 9 5 2 )
●India’s Villages (1955)
●Social change in Modern India (1966)
●Caste in Modern India and Other Essays (1966)
●India: Social Structure (1980)
●The Dominant Caste and Other Essays (1987)
1.4.3.1. Social Change
Social change as a th eme continues to be a significant
concern of Indian sociologists and social anthropologists. The term
social change implies significant alteration in behaviour patterns
and cultural values resulting in transformation and having a lasting
effect on the soci ety’s culture, Srinivas has used the concepts of
Sanskritization and westernisation to understand social change in
India.
1.4.3.2Sanskritization
Srinivas coined the term Sanskritization to reflect the social
mobility present in Indian Society.
According to M.N. Srinivas Sanskritization is a process by
which a “low” Hindu caste, or tribal or other group, changes its
customs, ritual, ideology, and way of life in the direction of a high,
and frequently, a “twice” born caste. In his study of Mysore Village,
Srinivas finds that at some time or the other, every caste tries to
change its rank in the hierarchy by giving up its attributes and trying
to adopt those of castes above them. This process of attempting to
change one’s rank by giving up attribute s that define a caste as low
and adopting attributes that are indicative of higher status is called
‘Sanskritization’. This process essentially involves a change in
one’s dietary habits from non -vegetarianism to vegetarianism, and
change in one’s occupati on habits from unclean to clean
occupation.
1.4.3.3. Dominant Caste
The concept of dominant caste was first proposed by
Srinivas in his early papers on the village of Rampura. This concept
is crucial in understanding the social and the political life in rural
India. The term dominant caste is used to refer to a caste which
“wields economic or political power and occupies a fairly high
position in the hierarchy.” The dominant caste may not be ritually
superior but is numerically larger, owns land and has p olitical
influence over the village matters. The people of other lower castesmunotes.in

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14look at them as their ‘reference group’ and try to imitate their
behaviour, ritual pattern, custom and ideology. All the other castes
of the village stand in a relationship of se rvice to the dominant
caste. The members of a dominant caste have an upper hand in all
the affairs of the locality and enjoy many special opportunities as
well as privileges. Srinivas has defined the following six major
characteristics of Dominant caste.
i)Land Ownership
ii)Numerical Strength
iii)High place in local hierarchy
iv)Western Education
v)Job in administration and
vi)Urban sources of income
Of the above the characteristics of numerical strength,
economic power through land ownersh ip and political power are
particularly significant. The ritual status of the caste is no longer the
major basis of its position in the social hierarchy. In his study of
Rampura in Mysore he found that there are the Brahmins, peasants
and the untouchables. Though the Brahmins are ritually superior
the peasants own lands and are numerically stronger as well as
wield political influence over the village affairs and therefore the
peasants are the dominant caste in the village and all the other
castes stand in relationship of service to the dominant caste.
1.4.3.4.Religion and Society
Srinivas’ work Religion and Society among the Coorgs of
South India (1952) led him to formulate the concept of
Brahminization to represent the process of the imitation of life -ways
and ritual practices of Brahmins by the lower -caste Hindus. The
concept was used as an explanatory device to interpret changes
observed in the ritual practices and life -ways of the lower castes
through intensive and careful field study. In Religion and Society,
Srinivas was concerned with the spread of Hinduism. He talked
about “Sanskritic Hinduism’ and its values. Related to this was the
notion of ‘sanskritization’ which Srinivas employed “to describe the
process of the penetration of sanskritic values into the remote parts
in India. Imitation of the way of life of the topmost, twice -born
castes was said to be the principle mechanism by which the lower
castes sought to raise their own social status”.
Check your progress:
1)What is social change?munotes.in

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152)Give names of any 2 works of M N Srinivas.
3)Elaborate on the contribution of M N Srinivas to Indian Society.
1.5. CRITICAL APPRAISAL
i.Although Srinivas has talked about the economic and
techno logical development, he has side tracked the lower
segments of society.
ii.In promoting Sanskritization he has marginalised and alienated
religious minorities.
iii.The ideas of Sanskritisation and dominant caste have put him
closer to the Hindutva id eology of cultural nationalism.
iv.His understanding was more elitist and represented an upper
castes view.
Check your progress
1)Critically evaluate the approach of M N Srinivas.
1.6. GLOSSARY
Indology
Structural functionalism
Book view
Filed view
Sanskritisation
Social change
Dominant caste
Westernization .munotes.in

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161.7 QUESTIONS
1Write in detail the contribution of G. S. Ghurye towards the
development of sociology in India?
2Give a biographical sketch of G. S. Ghurye?
3Elaborate on G. S. Ghurye’s writings and methodologies?
4.Explain the Indological Approach of Dr G S Ghurye
5Write a detailed note on the contribution of M. N. Srinivas to
Indian Sociology?
6As a structural –functionalist elaborate on the methods and
Approaches a dopted by M. N. Srinivas?
1.8 REFERENCES AND READING
Deshpande, Satish (2008), Fashioning a post-colonial discipline :M .
N. Srinivas and Indian Sociology. Patricia Uberoi; Nandini Sundar
and Satish Deshpande (Ed.). Anthropology in the East. Founders of
Indian Sociology and Anthropology New Delhi: Permanent Black.
Dhanagare, D. N. (1993). Themes and Perspectives in Indian
Sociology. Rawat Publication, Delhi.
Nagla K. B. (2008), Indian Sociological Thought, Rawat Publication,
Delhi.
Nandini Sundar and Satish Deshpande (Ed.) Anthropology in the
East. Founders of Indian sociology and Anthropology New Delhi.
Permanent Black.
Patel Sujata (2011). Social Anthropology or Marxist Sociology? In
Sujata Patel (Ed.) Doing sociology In India. G enealogies locations
and practices. New Delhi. OUP
Shankar Rao, C.N. 2004. Sociology of Indian Society. S Chand
Publishing.
Srinivas, M. N. (1966). Sociological Studies in India. Economic and
Political Weekly, 1 (3): 119 -120.
Srinivas M.N. and Panini ,M . N .( 1 9 7 3 ) .T h eD e v e l o p m e n to f
Sociology and Social Anthropology in India, Sociological Bulletin,22
(2) :179 -215.
Upadhyaya, Carol (2008). The idea of Indian Society G. S. Ghurye
and the making of Indian sociology. In Patricia Uberoi; Nandini
Sundar an d Satish Deshpande (ed) Anthropology in the East:
Founders of Indian Sociology and Anthropology, New Delhi:
Permanent Black.
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172
DIALECTICAL APPROACH TO
SOCIOLOGY
A.R.D e s a ia n d D. P. Mukerji, Non-Brahminical Approach
Dr. B. R. Ambedkar and Mahatma Phule.
Unit Structure :
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Dialectical Approach to Sociology
2.2 A R Desai
2.2.1 Biography
2.2.2 Methodological Approach.
2.2.3 Works and writings
2.2.3.1 Transformation of Indian Society.
2.2.3.2 Social Background of Indian Nationalism.
2.2.3.3 Peasant Struggles
2.2.3.4 State and society
2.2.4 Relevance of Marxist Approach
2.2.5 Critical Appraisal.
2.2.6 Conclusion
2.3 D.P. Mukerji
2.3.1 Biography.
2.3.2 Methodological Approach.
2.3.3Works and Writings.
2.3.3.1 Personality
2.3.3.2 Modern Indian Culture
2.3.3.3 Making of Indian History.
2.3.3.4 Modernisation.
2.3.4 Critical Appraisal.
2.3.5. Conclusion
2.4 Non Brahmanical Approach
2.5 Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar
2.5.1. Biography
2.5.2 Methodology and Approaches
2.5.3. Works.
2.5.4 Critical Appraisal
2.5.5 Conclusion.munotes.in

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182.6. Mahatma Jyotirao Phule
2.6.1. Biography.
2.6.2 Methodology and Approach
2.6.3 Works
2.6.4. Critical Evaluation
2.6.5 Summary
2.7 Let us sum up
2.8 Glossary
2.9 Questions
2.10 References
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• To familiarize students with a dialectical approach to Sociology.
• To acquaint the students with the methodology used by A. R.
Desai is studying in Indian Society.
• To introduce students to the work of D. P. Mukerji.
• To understand the non-Brahmanical Approach as presented by
Dr. Ambedkar.
• To evaluate the contribution of Dr. B. R. Ambedkar to the
understanding of caste.
• To acquaint the students with the contribution of Mahatma
Jyotirao Phule to eradicate Caste system and social Injustice.
2.1 DIALECTICAL APPROACH TO SOCIOLOGY
The Dialectical -Historical Approach is related to the Marxist
methods and propositions for the analysis of social reality.
Yogendra Singh (20 04) has used the term dialectical and not
Marxist as in Indian sociology, Marxist approach comprises several
adaptive models. Most Marxist thinking in India was done in the
forties and fifties by non -sociologists. The study of Indian social
reality from t he Marxism perspective has been conducted by
scholars such as M.N. Dutta, D. D. Kosambi, A. R. Desai, D. P.
Mukerji, R.S. Sharma, Irfan Habib and others. Among the early
sociologists who emphasized the significance of the dialectical
model were D. P. Muker ji, A. R. Desai and Ramakrishna
Mukherjee.
The Marxist approach endeavors to locate within a specific
society, the forces which preserve and forces that lead to changes
in the social organization which would take the productive power of
mankind to the hi gher level. Marxism aims at providing a scientific
study of society from a class angle. It focuses on the property
relations as a crucial element for properly understanding the naturemunotes.in

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19of transformation taking place in the country. Desai feels that the
adop tion of Marxist method will be helpful in studying industrial
relations in the context of management -labour relations, capital -
labour relations and in the context of the state that has adopted the
capitalist path of development. The dynamics of rural, urb an,
educational and other developments will be better understood in
the larger context of social framework. The Marxist approach helps
to understand the social reality through the means of production,
the techno -economic division of labour involved in oper ating the
instruments of production and social relations of production or what
was more precisely characterized as property relations. It
recognizes the dialectics of evolutionary as well as revolutionary
changes of the breaks in historical continuity in the transition from
one socio -economic formation to another.While understanding
society, primacy is given to economic infrastructure, culture is seen
as rooted in economic infrastructure. This amounts to rejection of
pure Indological view and the faulty in terpretation it
generates.Indian society is studied in terms of conflict and social
institutions are seen as exploitative and existing for the benefit of
the few.
2.2 A.R. DESAI
2.2.1 Biography
A.R. Desai was born on April 16, 1915 at Nadiad in Gujarat
and died in 1994 at Baroda. Influenced by his father, a well -known
litterateur, A R Desai took part in student movements in Baroda,
Surat and Bombay. He graduated from the University of Mumbai
and obtained his law degree and PhD in Sociology under G S
Ghur ye from University of Mumbai. He taught at the University of
Mumbai and later also became the head of the Department.He was
also the President of the Indian Sociological Society (1980 -81) and
the Gujarat Sociological Society (1988 -90).
2.2.2 Methodologic al Approach.
He consistently advocated and applied a dialectical -historical
model in his sociological studies. He closely studied the works of
Marx and Engels and the writings of Trotsk y. He may be regarded
as one of the pioneers in introducing the modern Marxist approach
to empirical investigations involving bibliographical and field
research. He rejects any interpretations of tradition with reference
to religion, rituals and festivitie s. His sociology is essentially a
secular phenomenon where he relies on economics to understand
and analyze social structures. All his studies are based on the
Marxist method of historical -dialectical materialism. He considers
that the emerging contradicti ons in the Indian process of social
transformation arise mainly from the growing nexus among the
capitalist bourgeoisie, the rural petty -bourgeoisie and a state
apparatus. This nexus thwarts the aspirations of the rural andmunotes.in

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20industrial working class. The co ntradiction however is not resolved
and takes new forms of protests and social movements.
Desai’s sociological vision stands out for its differences with
Indian social anthropology of the 1960s and 1970s. When the other
Indian sociologists were concentra ting on analysing the micro (the
village), Desai’s sociology studied the macro and the meso
Capitalism, nationalism, classes, agrarian structure, the state and
peasant movements among other things using the historical
method of analyses. His use of histori cal method gave a new
perspective to evaluate changes in the Indian society by giving
specific meaning to the Marxist notion of structure and the various
elements in its constitution in India such as feudalism, capitalism,
the relationship between class an d nation, peasants and working
class, the post –colonial state and the rights of the deprived.
Check your Progress
1)Elaborate on the methodology of A R Desai.
2.2.3 Works and writings
A. R Desai has applied his in Marxist perspective to
understa nd the diverse aspects of Indian social reality. The main
works are:
●The Social Background of Indian Nationalism (1948)
●Rural Sociology in India (1969)
●Slums and Urbanization in India (1970,1972)
●State and Society in India (1975)
●Peasant Struggle in In dia (1979)
●Rural India in Transition (1979)
●India’s Path of development (1984)
●Desai also developed the field of Political Sociology in 1960s.
2.2.3.1 Transformation of Indian Society.
The introduction of new economic reforms disrupted the old
economic system. The old land relations and artisans were
replaced with the emergence of new land relations and modern
industries. The class of zamindars replaced the village commune.
New classes emerged with modern industry like capitalist, industrial
workers, agricultural labourers, tenants, merchants etc. The new
land revenue system, commercialization of agriculture,
fragmentation of land etc. led to the transformation of Indian
villages .T h e s e changes resulted in polarization of classes inmunotes.in

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21agrarian areas, poverty in rural areas and exploitation. In urban
society there were capitalist industrial working class, petty traders,
doctors, lawyers etc. The introduction of railways, postal services,
centralized uniform law, English education brought about qualitative
changes in Indian society. However, the introduction of railways
and press by the British unintentionally led to the unification of
Indian society. The social infrastructural setup gave rise to the
nationalist freedom movement and awakening of Indian
nationalism.
2.2.3.2 Social Background of Indian Nationalism.
Desai applied the Marxist approach to the study of
nationalism in India during the British rule. In his work The Social
Backgr ound of Indian Nationalism he traces the emergence of
Indian Nationalism from a dialectical perspective. Indian
nationalism emerged due to the material conditions created by
British colonialism. The new economic relations developed by
industrialisation an d modernization developed by the British is a
stabilizing factor in the continuity of traditional institutions in India,
which would undergo change as these relations would change. He
does not trace tradition from caste, religion or ritual. Rather the
dialectical history of India he presents shows that traditions have
their roots in India's economy and production relations.
Inthe Social Background of Indian Nationalism and Recent
trends in Indian Nationalism (1960) he provides an analysis of the
emerge nce of various social forces which altered the economy and
society in India within the context of colonialism. The state that
emerged in India after independence was a capitalist state. The
state performed the functions of protecting the propertied class and
suppressing the struggles of the exploited classes.
2.2.3.3 Peasant Struggles
In his two volumes of Peasant Struggles in India (1979) and
Agrarian Struggles in India after Independence (1986) Desai
highlighted the difference in the peasant struggles then and now.
The agrarian struggles at present are waged by the newly emerged
properties classes as well as the agrarian poor especially the
agrarian proletariat. He maintained that progress could be
achieved by radically transforming the exploitative c apitalist system
in India.
2.2.3.4 State and society
InState and society in India (1975) Desai provided a critique
of the theories of modernization. In his works he puts the state at
the centre and elaborates on its role as facilitator of social
transfo rmation. In his later works on state he pursued the theme of
the repressive role of the state and the growing resistance to it.munotes.in

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222.2.4 Relevance of Marxist Approach
While American structural functionalism and British
functionalism dominated social scienc es and sociological
researches in the 50's and early 60's Desai continued to write on
Indian society and state from a Marxist perspective. The Marxist
approach according to Desai could help to study the government
policies, the classes entrenched into the state apparatus and India's
political economy. The Marxist approach helps to raise relevant
questions, conduct research in the right direction, formulate
adequate hypotheses, evolve proper concepts, adopt and combine
appropriate research techniques and loc ate the central tendencies
of transformations with its major implications. The Marxist
approach helps to understand social reality through means of
production , the division of labour and social relations of
production. The Marxist approach gives central importance to
property structure in analysing any society. For Desai the property
relations are crucial as they help to shape the purpose, nature,
control, direction and objectives underlying the production.
2.2.5. Critical Appraisal
i)Desai’s project of Sociology remained largely ideological and
political.
ii)Yogendra Singh argues that Desai’s Marxist analysis fails at the
level of empirical support. His theoretical framework can be
challenged by the strength of substantial data.
iii)Some of his writings are over generalized without studying the
minute details of society.
2.2.6 Conclusion
A.R. Desai has applied the use of Marxist approach for the
understanding of the Indian social realities. He applies historical
materialism for unde rstanding the transformation of Indian society.
Desai views that Marxist paradigm is the most relevant framework
that can help in comprehending properly the transformation that is
taking place in the Indian Society and its various sub -systems. In
his studi es of nationalism, analysis of rural social structure, the
nature of economic and social policies of change in India and the
structure of state and societies he has tried to expose the
contradictions and anomalies in policies and process of change
resultin g from the capitalist bourgeoisie interlocking of interest in
the Indian society.
2.3 D.P. MUKERJI
2.3.1 Biography.
D P Mukherjee (1894 -1961) one of the founding fathers of
sociology in India was born on 5th October 1894vin a middle -class
Bengali fami ly. He acquired his MA in economics and history. He
began his career at Bangabasi College, Calcutta. In 1922 he joinedmunotes.in

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23the newly founded Lucknow University as a lecturer in economics
and sociology. He retired as Professor and Head of the
Department in 195 4. In 1953 for a year he served as a visiting
professor of Sociology at the International Institute of Social
Studies, The Hague. He was the first president of the Indian
Sociological Conference. He was also the vice president of the
International Sociolo gical Association. Besides being a scholar in
the field of sociology he was versatile who made landmarks in
economics, literature, music and art. He preferred being called
Marxologist i.e. a social scientist of Marxism. As a scholar and a
teacher, he enga ged in dialogue, lectures, discussions and
conversations encouraging interchange of ideas with his students.
2.3.2 Methodological Approach.
Dhurjati Prasad Mukerji popularly referred to as DP was
perhaps the most popular of the pioneers in Indian Sociol ogy. He
came to sociology more as a social philosopher. He resisted any
attempt at compartmentalisation of knowledge in social science. He
was interested in understanding the nature and meaning of Indian
society rooted in Indian tradition. He followed Marx ism as a method
of analysis rather than Marxism as a political ideology. He
recognised the importance of Marxism to analyse the socio -
economic forces operating in human society. His dialectical
analysis of Indian history suggested that tradition and modern ity,
colonialism and nationalism, individualism and collectivism could be
seen as dialectically interacting with each other. He attempted a
dialectical interpretation of the encounter between the Indian
tradition and modernity which unleashed many forces o f cultural
contradictions during the colonial period. He focussed on the
historical specificity of India’s cultural and social transformation
which was characterised less by class struggle and more by value
assimilation and cultural synthesis that resulted from the encounter
between tradition and modernity.
2.3.3 Works and Writings.
Dhurjati Prasad Mukerji was a versatile scholar. He wrote
nineteen books, ten in Bengali and nine in English. His early
publications include.
-Personality and the social sci ence (1924),
-Basic concepts in Sociology (1932),
-Problems of Indian Youth (1942),
-Modern Indian Culture (1942),
-Modern Indian Culture: A sociological study (1942),
-Tagore: A study (1943),
-On Indian History: A study in Method (1943),
-Introduction to Music (1945),
-Views and Counterviews (1946)
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24His first book in English, Personality and the Social science
(1924), was described by him as ‘a personal document’ written with
‘the sole purpose’ of clarifying his ‘atti tude towards systematized
knowledge of society and life in general. In his later work Basic
concept in Sociology (1932) he discussed the notions of ‘Progress’,
‘Equality’, ‘Social forces’, and ‘Social control’. In this work, he had
clearly stated that he w as not comfortable with the contemporary
western sociological theories which seemed to him ‘heavily
mechanistic and ethnocentric’.
Check Your Progress
Q.1 Bring out the main writings of D. P. Mukerji.
Q.2Highlight a few works of D. P. Mukerji.
2.3.3.1 Personality
DP from the very beginning organised his ideas around the
notion of personality. According to him, abstract individuals should
not be the focus of social science theories and pleaded for the
holistic, psycho -sociological approac h. Personality could be
understood as the “synthesis of the double process of individuality
and the socialisation of the uniqueness of individual life, this perfect
unity” that he called personality (1924).
DP while defining personality has made a distinc tion
between the ideas of Purusha from the western notion of
individuality . The purusha is not isolated from society and
individuals and neither is it under the hold of group mind. Purusha
is an active actor who establishes contacts and relations with
others and fulfils his responsibilities. The western individual man is
dominated by the market forces, manipulated by advertisements,
press chains etc. that restricts his freedom and right to choose. In
contrast the low level of aspiration of the average Indian which is
moderated by group norms results in better life. The Indian
sociologist will have to accept the group as his unit ejecting the
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252.3.3.2 Modern Indian Culture
D.P. Mukerji in his “Modern Indian Culture: A Sociological
Study” ha s revealed British rule as the real turning point for the
Indian Society. His concept of tradition appeared for the first time in
the year 1942 in his book Modern Indian Culture: A Sociological
Study.
The middle class helped consolidate the British rule in India
but later challenged it successfully. His vision of India was a
progressive, peaceful India ‘born out of the union of diverse
elements, of distinctive regional cultures. Reorientation to tradition
was an essential condition of moving forward. In h is view “politics
has ruined our culture”. The national movement for him was anti-
intellectual though it generated idealism and moral fervour. He
believed that modernisation cannot be achieved by imitation.
Tradition is the principle of continuity and mode rnity should be
defined in relation to tradition and not its denial. He explains
tradition as Parampara -the sanskritic equivalent of tradition. The
Indian traditions can be classified a primary -primordial and
authentic traditions; secondary -when Muslims arrived in the
country and tertiary tradition that reflected the differences among
various traditions in India.Traditions have a source which may be
scriptures, mythical heroes etc. and this historicity of traditions is
recognised by most people that ensu res social cohesion and social
tradition. Thus, tradition performs the act of conserving but is not
necessarily conservative. Traditions do change through the
principles of Sruti, Smriti and Anubhava. Anubhava or personal
experience is the revolutionary pr inciple. The traditional system
accommodates the dissenting voices. The strength of the Indian
tradition lies in the crystallisation of values emerging from the past
happenings. The adjustments with modernity will occur and that
Indians will not vanish wit h the western culture. DP does not
worship tradition and his idea of well -balanced personality is a
mixture of moral fervour and aesthetic and intellectual sensibility
with the sense of history and rationality.
He argued that there is a dialectical relat ion between India’s
tradition and modernity, British colonialism and nationalism and
individualism and collectivity. He argued that traditions are central
to the understanding of Indian society. The encounter of tradition
with modernisation created cultura l contradictions, adaptations and
conflict. This dialectic between tradition and modernity ends up in
conflict and synthesis. It is this dialectic which helps to analyse
Indian society. The central point in his book Modern Indian Culture:
A Sociological S tudy was that the key to the history of India was
cultural synthesis -a creative response to the internal and external
political and cultural challenges. Indian tradition is the result of
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262.3.3.3 Making of Indian History.
Analysing the history of India, D.P. Mukerji has closely
followed the ideas of Karl Marx. He differed from Marx’s
assessment of the positive consequences of British rule as well as
his negative assessment of pre -British traditions. He differed from
Marx who said that ‘England had to fulfil a double mission in India:
one destructive and the other regenerating -the annihilation of the
old Asiatic society and the laying of the material foundations of
western society in India’ (1959). For Marx modernisation of In dia
had to be westernisation. DP was opposed to the view of Marx
about India’s past and future. Indian history could not be made by
outsiders.
While discussing the history of India D.P. Mukerji has
emphasized on two key words; ‘specificity’ and ‘crisis’ .T h ef o r m e r
points to the importance of the encounter of traditions and the latter
to its consequences. Tradition in Marxist view is “the comparative
obduracy of a culture -pattern”. According to Mukerji this Marxist
approach needs to be grounded in the sp ecificity of Indian history
as Marx himself had done by focussing on Indian capitalism, the
dominant institutions of western society. DP was interested in the
study of tradition and modernity and this could be done by
focussing first on tradition and then on change.
DP’s greatest contribution lies in his theoretical formulations
about the role of tradition in order to analyse social change. The
Indian social reality can be properly understood in terms of “its
special traditions, special symbols and its sp ecial patterns of culture
and social actions”.
2.3.3.4 Modernisation
Modernization: Genuine or spurious?
For DP the place of religion and philosophy was dominant in
the history of India. For him “Indian history was Indian culture”. T he
national movement had been anti -intellectual since there was much
unthinking borrowing from the west. He believed that there could
not be genuine modernisation through imitation. People could not
abandon their own cultural heritage and internalise the h istorical
experiences of other people -this would lead to cultural imperialism.
In his study published in 1943 on Tagore DP views the nature and
dynamics of modernisation. It emerges as a historical process
which is at once an expansion, an elevation, a de epening and
revitalisation -a larger investment of traditional values and cultural
patterns. Resulting from the interplay of tradition and modern.
Tradition in this view gives one the freedom to choose between
alternatives and evolve a cultural pattern wh ich is a synthesis
between old and new. Modernity must be defined in relation to and
not in denial of tradition. He has stressed the importance of self -
consciousness which is a form of modernisation which consists ofmunotes.in

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27nationalism, democracy, the utilisation of science and technology,
planning for social and economic development and the cultivation
of rationality.
Check your progress
1)Discuss the major works and contribution of D. P. Mukerji.
2.3.4 Critical Appraisal
i)He was not involved in any empir ical exercise of data collection.
He was an armchair social critic, social philosopher and
culturologist.
ii)His work does not have any new conceptual framework
(Unnithan et al, 1965)
iii)Saran (1962) has pointed out DP does not subject the socialist
order itsel f to analysis and takes its benign character on trust.
iv)He fails to realise that technology -oriented society cannot be
non-exploitative and not anti -man and the traditional and the
modern worldviews are rooted in different conceptions of time.
Check your progress
1)Critically evaluate the contribution of D.P. Mukerji to understand
Indian Society.
2.3.5 Conclusion:
The work of D. P. Mukerji is quite significant in building the
sociology of India. He was deeply influenced by Marxian though ta s
is evident in his emphasis on economic factors in the process of
cultural change. He adopted the Marxian Approach in various ways
ranging from simple emphasis upon the economic factor in the
making of the culture to an elevation of practice to the sta tus of a
test of theory. The theme of tradition and modernity is central to his
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282.4 NON BRAHMINICAL APPROACH
The word subaltern as defined by the Oxford dictionary
stands for the general attribute of subordination expressed in terms
of caste, class, age, gender. It includes the characteristics of
defiance and submission. It conveys a view from below i.e. a view
or understanding from the bottom of the society or the flow of
knowledge from below. The Proponents of the subaltern approach
in India are David Hardiman, B. R. Ambedkar, Ranajit Guha ,K a p i l
Kumar and others. The subaltern studies emerged as the critique of
the nationalist Marxist and elitist historiography to incorporate the
voices of the weak into the project of history rewriting. The t hrust of
subaltern historiography is on reconstructing the other history, i.e.
is the history of people’s politics and movement and their attempt to
make their own history. This perspective emphasises not to view
peasant or tribal insurgents merely as objects of history but to treat
them as makers of their own history.
An o n -Brahmanical approach to the study of society in India
is based on rejection of Brahmanical history from the shudra -ati
shudra perspective. One of the main proponents of the non-
Brahmanical approach is Mahatma Phule. Brahminism for Phule
was historical and based on the ideology of oppression and
domination. At the theoretical level Phule sought to unite the
shudras and Ati shudras. He argued that the shudras and ati
shudras to gether represented an oppressed and exploited mass.
Phule’s writing and theorization is ‘ shudra ati shudra ’r e w r i t i n go f
history.
The writings of Ambedkar and Phule questioned the writings
of the scholars who based their analyses of India from a
Brahminical viewpoint that privileged the Brahmins at the cost of
non-Brahmins by the ‘Brahminical production of knowledge’. This
production of knowledge was challenged by the marginal voices
with an emancipatory perspective.
Check your progress
1)Explain the features of the non-Brahmanical approach.munotes.in

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292.5 DR. BHIMRAO RAMJI AMBEDKAR (1891 –1956)
2.5.1. Biography
Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar, popularly also known as
Babasaheb ,w a sa n Indian jurist , political leader, philosopher,
anthropologist , historian, orator , economist, teacher, and editor.
Ambedkar was born in the town and military cantonment of Mhow
inthe central provinces (now in Madhya Pradesh )i n t oap o o r
Mahar (considered an untouchable caste) family. Ambedkar’s
family belonged to Ratnagiri district of Konkan and had for long
been working in the British army. Overcoming numerous social and
financial obstacles, Ambedkar becam e one of the first untouchables
to obtain a college education in economics and political science in
India in 1912. He went abroad for higher education. He obtained his
PhD in 1917 from Columbia and later from the London School of
Economics. In 1918 he became professor of political economy in
theSydenham College of commerce and economics in Bombay. In
1920, he published a weekly Mooknayak (leader of the silent )i n
Mumbai to criticize orthodox Hindu politicians and the reluctance of
the Indian political community to fight caste discrimination.
Ambedkar campaigned against social discrimination, the system of
chaturvarna –the categorization of Hindu society into four varnas –
and the Hindu caste system .Ambedkar gained a reputation as a
scholar and practiced law for a few years. In 1923 he started his
law practice and devoted himself for the upliftment of Dalits and the
poor. While practicing law in the Bombay high court he established
theBahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha , to promote education and socio -
economic improvement of outcastes i.e. depressed classes. In
1927 Ambedkar decided to launch active movements against
untouchability. In 1930 he became the president of the All India
Depressed Class Association. In 1936, he formed the Independent
Labour Party, which later turned into the All India Scheduled Castes
Federation. Upon India’s independence on 15 August 1947, the
new congress -led government i nvited Ambedkar to serve as the
nation's first law minister. On 29 August, Ambedkar was appointed
chairman of the constitution drafting committee, to write India’s new
constitution which was adopted on 26 November 1949 by the
constituent assembly. Ambedkar argued for extensive economic
and social rights for women, and also won the assembly's support
for introducing a system of reservations of jobs in the civil services,
schools and colleges for members of scheduled castes and
scheduled tribes , a system similar to affirmative action . Ambedkar
resigned from the cabinet in 1951 following the stalling of his draft
of the Hindu code bill in parliament, which sought to explain gender
equality in the laws of inheritance, marriage and the economy.
Towar ds the end of his life, he felt that the only way to fight
the caste system was not to reform it but to leave it and so he led
the conversion of millions of Dalits toBuddhism in Nagpur on 14thmunotes.in

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30Oct 1956. Ambedkar always felt that the depressed class has no
honour in the Hindu religion which is reflected in his writings and
actions.
Check your progress
1)Write the biographical sketch of Dr. B. R. Ambedkar.
2.5.2 Methodology and Approach
Ambedkar provided a subaltern approach and philosophy to
understand caste -based inequality. He was a liberator preaching to
the untouchables that liberty is not a gift; it has to be fought for. He
declared until and unless the downtrodden themselves came
forward to fight their battle, no one else could alleviate their
grievances. Self -awakening could provide the necessary strength to
fight against evils in society. He ga ve them a mantra -educate,
organize and agitate.
Ambedkar realized that caste and Brahminic Hinduism
reinforce each other and discriminate against the downtrodden. The
genesis of the oppressive nature of the caste dominated society is
attributed to the sa cred Shastras of the Hindus and the reading of
these texts by the downtrodden was a sacrilegious act to be
severely punished as sanctioned by the Manusmriti. According to
Ambedkar, the Vedas, Smritis and Shastras were all instruments of
torture used by the Hindus against the untouchables. In his
Annihilation of Caste, he emphasized that the Shastras were a
system of rules to deprive the untouchables of their basic needs
and deny them equal status in the society.
Another aspect of Ambedkar's subaltern appr oach was his
distinct views of Indian nationalism opposed to the dominant views
Hindu nationalism as represented by Raja Rammohan Roy, B.G.
Tilak, Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru. Ambedkar's form of
nationalism, popularly known as ''Dalit BahujanSamaj' ', included the
subaltern philosophy of Jyotirao Phule and Periyar E.V.
Ramaswami i.e. an anti -Hindu and anti -Brahminical discourse of
India nationalism. It aimed at establishing a casteless and classless
society where no one would be discriminated against on the basis
of birth and occupation. It was the Manu smriti which made the
shudras and women as 'servants’ of society. Therefore, he said that
such a religion must be destroyed. He constructed Buddhism in
opposition to Hinduism. Ambedkar built up a criti que of pre -colonialmunotes.in

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31Brahminism and its inegalitarian social set up based on the low and
high dichotomy of the graded caste system.
He rejected Gandhi’s attempt to remove untouchability by
trying to unite the untouchables and caste Hindus and termed it as
a mere facade aimed at buying over the untouchables with
kindness and warned untouchables not to fall into the trap of
Gandhism. He disagreed with Gandhi that demands for political
representation for Dalits would weaken the Hindu religion.
He suggested t hat evils such as sati, child marriage and
prohibition on widow remarriage were the outcomes of caste. He
suggested inter -caste marriage and inter -dinning to solve the caste
problem. He also felt that hereditary priesthood should go and
should remain open to all co -religions having appropriate
qualifications as certified by the state. Ambedkar, however, knew
these suggestions would not be acceptable to Hindus.
Ambedkar’ s legacy as a socio -political reformer had a deep
effect on modern India. His thoughts have influenced various
spheres of life and transformed the way India today looks at socio -
economic policies, education and affirmative action through socio -
economic and legal incentives. His condemnation of Hinduism and
its foundation of the caste system, made him controversial and
unpopular among the u pper caste Hindus. His conversion to
Buddhism sparked a revival in interest in Buddhist philosophy in
India and abroad.
Ambedkar’s political philosophy has given rise to a large
number of mass political parties like BSP, publications and workers'
unions that remain active across India, especially in Maharashtra.
Check your progress
1)Explain the non-Brahmanical approach of Dr. B. R. Ambedkar.
2.5.3. Works.
●In “The Annihilation of Caste”, af a m o u sb o o k ,Ambedkar
strongly criticized Hindu orthodo x religion and the caste system.
He wrote of how the shudras were deprived of education and
freedom of occupation and were subjected to stigmatized
manual labour, all resulting in their virtual economic slavery;
how they were segregated and deprived of bas ic rights such asmunotes.in

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32drinking water even from public wells, and above all how they
were made victims of social persecutions.
●In “Who were the shudras? ” Ambedkar discovered from his
research on ancient India and anthropology that the Mahars
were an ancient Buddhist community of India who had been
forced to live outside villages as outcasts because they refused
to renounce their Buddhi st practices. He considered this to be
the reason why they became untouchables.
●In ‘Riddles in Hinduism’ : Ambedkar exposed contradictory
statements the Brahmins wrote about the origin of gods and
their supremacy, about the Vedas and its origin, about the
creation of the universe etc.
●States and minorities.
●Emancipation of the untouchables.
●The Buddha and his Dhamma.
●Castes in India: their mechanism, genesis and development .
2.5.4 Critical Appraisal
●Ambedkar did not focus on the tribal and did not try to build a
political bridge with them, though he considered the
untouchables and tribal as deprived communities.
●Ambedkar recognized the presence of linguistic and cultural
identities but was deeply susp icious of them excluding
minorities that do not share the dominant identity.
●Ambedkar believed that at the level of caste, Brahmin was the
main enemy, just as capitalism and landlords were the main
enemies at the level of class. He saw them as separate and did
not attempt to forge a unity between caste and class as Phule
had.
●Ambedkar wasn’t against British rule and took the help of the
British to get whatever concessions he could for the lower
castes. For this he accepted the position of labour minister in
the British government. After 1947 he even agreed to Nehru’s
offer to become the law minister though he saw the congress as
a‘ b r a h m i n -bourgeois’ party. Thus, he turned to reformist
interest -group politics. He supported Nehruvian socialism in
state suppor ted industrial development i.e. public sector but did
not oppose the problem of upper caste domination over state
machinery.
●Ambedkar led his followers towards Buddhism to end the
exploitation of the caste system. But religious conversion cannot
be a sol ution to a deep socio -economic problem like caste.
Even today Dalits and scheduled castes face numerous
atrocities. According to the union home ministry, between 2001
and 2005, the total number of crimes against the SC’s alonemunotes.in

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33were 1,56, 274. The new relig ion has done not much to solve
their problems.
●Ambedkar had also suggested inter -caste marriage as the
remedy to destroy caste. Today, marriages are preferred not
only within castes, but also within sub -castes. In Haryana and
Rajasthan, for instance, the khap (caste council) gives orders to
kill young lovers for marrying outside their caste. Such inhuman
killings are glorified as honour killings.
●Ambedkar did not predict the political outcome of caste. It is
getting stronger day by day. Today caste is used widely and
indiscriminately for political ends. This has sharpened caste and
sub-caste identities and resulted in caste alliances of different
types in different regions for the single purpose of using political
power. Conflicts between the dominant caste s and the rise of
the scheduled castes have become common and violent.
Check your progress
1) Critically evaluate the anti -caste approach of Dr. B. R.
Ambedkar.
2.5.5. Conclusion
Dr. B. R. Ambedkar is well known as a great thinker, a social
reformer, a fearless fighter, a famous advocate and a great
humanist. In his training and in his vision of life, Dr. Ambedkar was
deeply aware of the large dynamics of the world, its complexity and
differential bearing on social groups, localities and nations. The
backward classes in India, while allowing the political legacy of Dr.
Ambedkar, are yet to engage with the understanding that marked
his political involvement while their counterparts w ill probably rest
content in retaining him merely as a symbol. Besides, given the
size of Dalits, low caste and disadvantage in general, no political
party can afford to ignore the electoral dividends that Dr. Ambedkar
as an ally can bestow for the state t o sustain a modicum of
hegemony Dr. Ambedkar has become an indispensable necessity
today.
Dr. Ambedkar carried on his battle against untouchability
throughout his life. In 1947, Dr. Ambedkar became a law minister of
the government of India. He took a lead ing part in the farming of the
Indian constitution, outlawing discrimination against untouchables.
Dr. Ambedkar’s thoughts, ideas and philosophy are reflected in his
books. His writings such as “Origin and Mechanism of caste”,munotes.in

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34“Annihilation of Caste”, “who were the shudras?”, “Who were the
untouchables?” etc. reveal his scholarship and the clarity of this
thought. Dr. Ambedkar's disappointment was growing because of
the perpetuation of untouchability in the Hindu society. Finally, in
great despair he renoun ced Hinduism and became a Buddhist in
October, 1956.
2.6 MAHATMA JYOTIRAO PHULE (1827 -1890)
2.6.1. Biography
Mahatma Jyotiba Phule was a 19thcentury activist ,thinker ,
social reformer ,w r i t e r , philosopher ,e d i t o ra n d revolutionary from
Maharashtra . His influence was seen in the fields of education,
agriculture, caste system, women, widow upliftment and removal of
untouchability.
Phule was born in Satara district of Maharashtra in a family
belonging to the Mali (fulmali) caste, perceived to be an inferior
caste by certain sections of the society. Since Jyotirao's family
worked as florists under the peshwa rule, they came to be known
as 'phules'. His mother died when he was 9 months old. After
completing his primary education jyotirao had to leave school and
help his father by working on the family's farm. He was married at
the age of 12. His intelligence was recognized by a Muslim and a
Christian neighbor, who persuaded his father to allow Jyotirao to
attend the local Scottish mission's high school, which he complete d
in 1847. The turning point in Phule’s life was in 1848, when he was
insulted by the family of his Brahmin friend, a bridegroom for
participating in the marriage procession, an auspicious occasion.
He suddenly faced the divide created by the caste system. Phule
developed a keen sense of social justice. He argued that education
of women and the 'lower castes' was a vital priority in addressing
social inequalities.
Jyotiba Phule and his wife Savitr ibai were pioneers of
women's education in India. After educating his wife, he started a
school for girls in Pune in August 1848. He started widow -
remarriage and established a home for upper caste widows in
1854, as well as a home for new -born infants t op r e v e n t female
infanticide .
On 24 September 1873, Phule along with his followers
formed the ' Satya Shodhak Samaj '. The ma in objectives of the
organization were to liberate the Shudras (non -Brahmins) and Ati
Shudras (Dalits) and to prevent their 'exploitation' by the upper
caste like Brahmans. His hero was Chhatrapati Shivaji whom he
called a " ...destroyer of the brahmins ". He started "Shiv
Jayanti"(birth day of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj) first time in India.munotes.in

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35He also discovered the "samadhi "o fC h h a t r a p a t iS h i v a j iM a h a r a j
on Raigad fort which had disappeared in creepers and climbers.
But Phule had many Brahmin personal friends and he even
adopted a Brahmin boy as his heir. Shahu Maharaj ,t h er u l e ro f
Kolhapur princely state, gave a lot of financial and moral support to
Satya Shodhak Samaj.
Check your progress
1)What experiences in the name of caste became a turning point
in the life of Mahatma Phule to understand the divide created by
the caste system.
2)What is the main objective in the establishment of Satya
Shodhak Samaj.
2.6.2 Methodology and Approach
The Aryan race theory, the dominant explanation of caste
and the Indian society in his time provided the framework for his
theory. By inverting the traditional Aryan theory Phule took his
critique of Brahmanism and caste to the mass level. Phule’s
subaltern and anti -caste approach condemned the chaturvarna
system (the caste system) and opposed idol worship. He
advocated the spread of rational thinking and rejected the need for
a Brahman priestly class as educational and religious leaders.
He termed as irrational and absurd the dependence on God,
fate, astrology and other rituals. Phule attacked bl ind faith and what
is given in religious books and the so -called god's words. He said,
“If there is only one god, then why did he write the Vedas only in
Sanskrit? What about those who don’t understand this language?”
he considered Vedas as a 'form of fals e consciousness'. What is
striking in his works is his refusal to recognize Hinduism as a
legitimate religion and considers it as superstition and weapon of
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36He believed that the Brahmins were Indo -Europeans or
outsiders to Hinduism. Influenced by Thomas Paine books Rights
of Man (1791), and the European ‘Aryan theory of race’ Phule
proposed that Dalits and the shudras were the original inhabitants
conquered by the invading Aryans.
He criticized patriarchy in shudra and Brahmin families.
Jyotirao and Savitribai Phule were closely associated with feminist
radicals like Pandita Ramabai ,ab r a h m i nw o m a n , Tarabai Shinde ,
an o n -Brahmin fiery author and Muktabai ,af o u r t e e n -year-old
student in Phule's school, who wrote a famous essay on the social
oppression of the Mang and Mahar castes.
Phule believed in overthrow ing the social system in which
man has been deliberately made dependent on others with a view
to exploiting him. Phule’s argument that knowledge, education and
science were weapons of advance for the exploited masses was in
contrast to the elitist theory t hat linked western science and eastern
models. For Phule, knowledge was a weapon for equality and
human freedom as well as economic advance which was in direct
contrast with the Brahminic, ritualistic shastra.
Check your progress
1)Highlight the main featu res of the anti -caste approach of
Mahatma Jyotiba Phule.
2)Elaborate on Mahatma Phule’s views on caste.
2.6.3 Works
●Tritiya Ratna ,1 8 5 5
●Brahmananche kasab ,1869
●Powada: Chatrapati Shivaji Raje Bhosle Yancha: (Life of Shivaji
in a song drama), June 1869
●Gulamgiri (slavery), 1873. Caste to him was slavery, as cruel
and brutal as the enslavement of the Africans in the US.munotes.in

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37●Shetkarayacha Aasud (cultiv ator's whipcord), July 1881,
describes the oppression of peasants.
●Sarvajanik Satya Dharma Poostak ,A p r i l1 8 8 9 .P h u l e
propagated the replacement of Hinduism with a more
universalistic, equalitarian and rationalistic religion.
●Sarvajanic Satya Dharmapustak (ab o o ko ft r u er e l i g i o nf o ra l l )
1891, details the need for strong male -female equality.
●Akhand Adi Kavya Rachna
●Asprashyanchi Kaifiat
2.6.4. Critical Evaluation.
●Phule had a favorable opinion about the British rule in India and
credited them for introducing modern ideas of justice and
equality in Indian society. Phule admired British and never
spoke of freedom and independence from Briti sh rule.
●Phule did not attack the class system that supported the
oppressive caste system. Though he spoke of economic
exploitation he didn’t suggest the means to eradicate it.
●In his famous book Gulamgiri he compares caste oppression to
racial discrimina tion in US. However even though both have
common patterns of exploitation, they are different concepts and
have their own separate history.
Check your progress
1)Critically evaluate the non-Brahmanical approach of Mahatma
Phule.
2.6.5 Summary
Jyotiba Phule devoted his entire life for the liberation of
untouchables from the exploitation of Brahmins. He revolted
against the tyranny of the upper caste. Phule’s movement was a
source of inspiration to other movements of the untouchables and
depresse d Classes of Indian society. He occupies a unique position
among the social reformers in Maharashtra in the 19th century.
While many other reformers concentrated more on reforming the
social institutions of family and marriages with special emphasis on
thestatus and rights of women, Mahatma Jyotiba Phule revolted
against the unjust caste system under which millions suffered
injustice for centuries. His movement, unlike many others, gained
ground in the rural areas. Today he is taken as the founding figure
in Maharashtra by the farmers, women and rural based
environmental movements.munotes.in

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382.7 LET US SUM UP
The study of Indian Society from a Marxist perspective has
been conducted by scholars such as M N Dutta, S A Dange, D D
Kosambi, A R Desai, D.P. Mukerji, P C Joshi, R S Sharma, Irfan
Habib, D P Chattopadhyay and others. Among the early
sociologists who emphasised the significance of the dialectical
model were A.R. Desai and D.P. Mukerji. A.R. Desai applies
historical materialism for understanding the transform ation of the
Indian society. He explains how the national consciousness
emerged through qualitative changes in Indian society. He has
analysed the emerging contradictions in the process of social
transformation arguing that social unrest is rooted in the c apitalist
path of development. He studied different aspects of the Indian
society namely national movement, peasant struggles, slums and
urbanisation, state and society and democratic rights. D.P. Mukerji
was deeply influenced by Marxian thought with his emphasis on
economic factors in the process of cultural change. He looked at
Marxism as a method of analysis rather than a political ideology. He
studied different aspects of the Indian society namely the Indian
tradition, tradition and modernity, personal ity, the role of the middle
class and music. He showed that development of man or person is
conditioned by social factors. National independence, economic
development and the resolutions of class conflict within the society
are necessary conditions for hum an development in India, though
they may not be sufficient conditions. His greatest contribution is
his theoretical formulations about the role of tradition in order to
analyse social change.
A versatile scholar Dr. B. R. Ambedkar was Educated in
Satara and Bombay ( Mumbai) in Maharashtra and was the first
Indian among untouchables who went abroad for higher education.
He studied in Columbia (USA) and London (UK) with training in
economics and law. He worked tirelessly for the amelioration of
depressed cla sses. He argues that the depressed class had no
honour in the Hindu religion which is reflected in his writings and
actions too. He adopted the Buddha religion along with 5 lakh
people in a historical congregation on 14 October, 1956 at Nagpur.
He studied different aspects of the Indian Society namely the
untouchables, states and minorities and Annihilation of caste
system
Jyotiba Phule devoted his entire life for the liberation of
untouchables from the exploitation of Brahmins revolting against
the tyra nny of the upper Caste. Phule’s movement was a source of
inspiration to other movements of the untouchables and depressed
Classes of Indian society.munotes.in

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392.8 GLOSSARY
Dialectical Materialism
Subaltern studies
Annihilation of Caste
2.9. QUESTIONS
1. Write a biographical sketch on D. P. Mukerji.
2 Highlight the contribution made by D. P. Mukerji to Indian
sociology.
3. Write a biographical sketch of A. R. Desai?
4. State the methods & Approaches used by A. R. Desai.
5. Discuss the contribution of A.R. Desai To Indian sociology.
6. Explain the dialectical Approach to Indian Sociology.
7. Elaborate on A R Desai’s idea of the emergence of
Nationalism in India.
8. Write a biography sketch of a Mahatma Jyotiba Phule?
9. Bring out the contributor y work of Mahatma Jyotiba Phule to
eradicate Caste system from society?
10. Elaborate on the views of Dr. Ambedkar on Caste inequality?
11. Elaborate in detail on the Dr Ambedkar school of thought with
regards to the caste system in India.
12. Write a note on the Non Brahmanical approach as presented
by Mahatma Jyotiba Phule.
13. Elaborate on the subaltern approach of Dr. B. R. Ambedkar.
2.10 REFERENCES/ READINGS
Agarwal Daya, Joshi Laxmanshastri Taikteath : “Jyotirao Phule”,
(1996), National Book Trust.
Deshpande, S. (2001). Contemporary India: Sociological View.
Penguin Books.
Dhanagare, D. N. (1993). Themes and Perspectives in Indian
Sociology. Rawat Publication, New Delhi.
Dr. Ambedkar B. R. (2007). Annihilation of Caste. New Delhi,
Critical Quest.munotes.in

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40Kar, S. Remembering A R Desai Marxist Approach to Sociology.
Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.50, Issue No. 17, 25 April,
2015.
Madan, T. N. D P Mukerji 1894 -1961: A Centenary Tribute.
Sociological Bulletin. Vol. 43, No. 2 (September 1994), pp. 133 -142
Madan, T. N. (2008). Search for synthesis: The sociology of D. P.
Mukerji. Patricia Uberoi: Nandini Sundar and Satish Despande
(Ed.). Anthropology in the East: Founders of Indian sociolog ya n d
Anthropology New Delhi: Permanent Black.
Nagla, B K, (2008). Indian Sociological Thought, Rawat
Publications.
O Hanlon Rosalind (2004): “Caste conflict ideology :M a h a t m a
Jyotirao Phule & Low Caste Protest 19th century, Western India”,
Cambridge Uni versity Press.
Omvedt, Gail, Dalit Visions. New Delhi: Sage publications.
Omvedt, Gail. Understanding caste: From Buddha to Ambedkar
and beyond, Orient Blackswan.
Patel Sujata (2011). Social Anthropology or Marxist Sociology? In
Sujata Patel’s (Ed.). Doin g sociology In India: Genealogies, location
and practices. New Delhi
Patel, Sujata (2011) (Ed.). Doing sociology in India: Genealogies
locations and practices. New Delhi: OUP.
Patel Sujata (2008). Towards a Praxiological Understanding of
Indian Society in Patricia Uberoi: Nandini Sundar and Satish
Despande (Ed.). Anthropology in the East: Founders of Indian
sociology and Anthropology New Delhi: Permanent Black.
Shankar Rao, C.N. 2004. Sociology of Indian Society. S Chand
Publishing.
Uberoi, P, Sundar, N, Deshpande, S. (2007). (Ed). Anthropology in
the East. Founders of Indian Sociology and Social Anthropology,
Permanent Black: Delhi.
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413
CONTEMPORARY SOCIOLOGISTS
-Sharmila Rege
Unit Structure:
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 The Lavani of Eros and Sexual Economies
3.3 Powda of Valour and Politics of Identity
3.4 Emergence of ‘Sangeet Barees’
3.5 The Political Appreciation of Tamasha
3.5.1 New Dalit Feminism: Reorienting Women’s Studies as
Tritiya Ratan
3.6 Writing Caste/ Writing Gender: Translating Testimonies/
Translating Standpoint
3.6.1 Debating the Consumption of Dalit Autobiographies
3.7 Summary
3.8 Questions
3.9 References
3.0 OBJECTIVES
●Tocontextualize Lavani and Powada in Maharashtra
●To understand the economic relationship of Lavani
●To evaluate the association between Politics of identity
associated with Powada
●To Examine the issues of Dalit Feminism
●To analyse the issues of Dalit Autobiographies
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The key commentators of folk tradition of Maharashtra have
argued that the Powda is the man and the Lavani is the woman.
The Powada is the ballad of bravery and the Lavani is of devotional
and erotic kind.
The earliest Lavani dates back to the 17th century whereas
the 300 Powada’s to the early Maratha period. The Powada
became a major means of remembering the golden past of Maratha
Warriors. Most of the Powadas celebrated the brave deeds of the
Maratha heroes in the battle. The popular Marathi proverb heldmunotes.in

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42Lavani and women responsible for the collapse of Peshwa’s. The
bodies of lower caste women were projected in Lavani as either
arousing or satiating male desire.
During the reign of Bajirao , pauperisation and indebtedness
of peasantry was at its peak. The femine of 1803 led to increased
sale of women of the lower castes. A major part of revenue was
raised through trade of female slaves.
3.2 THE LAVANI OF EROS AND SEXUAL ECONOMIES
The lower caste women enslaved by the Peshwa were
employed in the court, “natakshala” (dancing house) and other
departments of Peshwa states like homes, stables, stores,
communication and construction work.
Some of these women slaves were also gifted to the offici als
in lieu of their salary. The women of the lower caste were made
available to the men of the higher caste through the intervention of
the state.
These slaves fall into two categories;
1.Kubinis -bought for domestic and agricultural labour.
2.Bateeks -bought for their sexual labour
The Lavani of the period was one of the important modes of
constructing them as adulterous. Thus Lavani -ap o p u l a rf o r mo f
entertainment at the court of Bajirao II, was also an ideological
justification for enslavement of lower caste women. The public
performance of the Lavani caste was a part of the ‘tamasha’ or the
folk theatre.
3.3 POWADA OF VALOUR AND POLITICS OF
IDENTITY
The Powada is the male form of expression labelled as not
emotional but of bravery; not soft but straight forward against
Lavani.
The Powada as a vehicle of group identity was discovered in
the second half of the 19th century and tried to revive the glorious
history and culture of Marathas. There were over 150 Powadas in
praise of ‘brahmanical rules of the Peshwas.
Jyotiba Phule’s Powada is composed in eight sections.
Phule himself in his preface declared the aim of Powada to reach
out to the Mang, Mahar, Mali and Kunbi i.e to all the Shudra and
anti-Shudra castes.munotes.in

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43In Phule’s Powda, Shivaji emerges a st h e‘ K u l w a d i
bhushan’, the pride of Shudras. In other Powda he criticised the
Brahmin policy of education. He critiques the Brahmin teacher who
has no qualms in shaking hands with British but who condemns the
Mahar student as polluting.
Eknath Annaji Jo shi’s Powda is a piece in the voice of Dadaji
Kondadev -the Brahmin teacher of Shivaji, who called upon Shivaji
to rescue Indian’s from Muslims. The Powda thus represented the
popular Shudra tradition in case of Phule’s Powda and represented
ap a n -Indian -brahmanical Hindu tradition in case of Joshi’s Powda.
The second half of the 19t century saw not only the collection of
Powadas but also a rise in the publications of Powda in literary and
political journals.
Let us check our progress:
Q. Write a detailed account on Lavani and Powada in Maharashtra.
3.4 EMERGENCE OF ‘SANGEET BAREES’
After Peshwa rule ended ma ny troops moved to the princely
state of Baroda. The first Marathi play was performed by Vishnudas
Bhave at the court of Raja of Sangli. The Bombay Times claimed
‘Bhave’s’ play of native origin. After 1860’s several English and
Sanskrit plays were translat ed to Marathi.
The dichotomy between ‘nache / nartaki’ (dancing girls,
dancers), ‘tamashagar / kalkar’ (folk performer/artist) intensified as
the lower castes were being displaced from their hereditary sphere
of the performing arts by the emergence of the bourgeois theatre.
The history of Marathi theatre for this period records
attempts by women of the lower castes to start theatre companies
in which women enacted both male and female roles. These
attempts were severely criticised.
Women of the Kolhati c aste is referred to as ‘ugadya
mandichijaat’, literally meaning, the caste of those women who
move around with their thighs bare.The women were known to be
the breadwinners of the family and dancing and prostitution have
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44Men managed the dholki -phad tamasha -while the sangeet
bares are planned, financed and organised mainly by the kolhati
women. These women do not marry while the women of dholki -
phad tamasha are most often married to troupe members. They are
subject to patriarchal regulatory control. They look down upon the
sangeet bears as ‘immoral’ not representative of true tamasha.
By the early 1890’s tamasha theatres had been established
in Mumbai and Pune. The theatres had been established in
Mumbai and Pu ne. The theatres also organised ‘baithak’ accessible
only to wealthy people.
It is apparent that there is a continuous struggle to
disorganised and reorganise the Lavani. There are tension between
the bourgeois theatre and tamasha.
From the 19th century working class districts had begun to
emerge in Bombay. The tamasha had become the working class
man’s theatre. The same period however saw a ban on the
tamasha group by the Bombay state in 1940’s. It was argued that
the lyrics were lewd and that the prosti tution was practised in the
name of art.
3.5 THE POLITICAL APPRECIATION OF TAMASHA
The ‘Jalsa’ took up issues of untouchability, oppression of
women and the peasantry, blind faith and the oppression by the
village Brahmins. The message of these debates was conveyed to
the masses through a new genre of tamasha -the Jalsa. The people
from 10 to 20 villages gathered to participate in the Jalsa. The key
element of jalsa was to praise modern science and education and
was built around the mockery of oppressive religious practices.
The Jalsa often took up issues of enforced widowhood,
torture, prostitution and education.
Let us check our progress:
Q. Write notes on S angeet Baree and Tamasha.
3.5.1 New Dalit Feminism: Reorienting Women’s Studies as
Tritiya Ratan
Since the 1980’s caste and class identities have dominated
politics. There have been broadly two paths to feminism:munotes.in

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451.Brahmani
2.Abrahmani/ bahujan vaadi
They were also asserted (named) as Dalit / Dalitbahujan /
abrahmani / Phule -Ambedkarite feminism.
By the 1990's several independent and autonomous
women’s organisations were formed. Many of these organisations
have varying ideological positions. To under stand dalit women we
need to talk differently. It is necessary to bring out the internal and
external factors that have bearing on the phenomenon . This
signifies that the representation of dalit women’s issue by non -dalit
women is less valid and less auth entic.
There were several apprehensions about the Dalit Mahila
Sanghatana’s likelihood of becoming predominantly a neo -Buddhist
women’s organisation. This raised the possibility of limiting the
participation of women from middle castes. The Satyashodhak
Kashtakari Mahila Sabha and Stree Mukti Sangharsh were holding
the Marxist -Phule -Ambedkar feminism to review its theories,
methodologies and praxis. They asked to review their ‘difference’
by clearly making these feminism as ‘Brahmani feminism’
In the last decade there has been considerable rethinking
and re -orientation of feminist analysis. After anti -Mandal agitation,
feminists conceptualised brahmanical patriarchy to explain the link
between caste and gender. Scholars also sought to map the lack of
femin ist engagement with the writings and works of Ambedkar. The
feminism was mapped and conceptualized as feminism -
Brahmanical and non -Brahmanical.
The various seminars on issue of dalit women opened up
debates on Brahmanical norms in feminim and the reproduc tion of
patriarchal norms within Dalit communities. The troubled relation
between the dalit movement and women’s movement came to be
mapped. There were efforts to theorise Dalit women’s approach. It
highlighted the need to go beyond oppression.
The analys is of ‘honour killing’ brought forth the connection
between caste, desire and patriarchy. In last few years the English
newsletters and journals of English brought special issues on dalit
feminism. Alternative histories and theories of feminism are
emergin g as important themes in the publication of the anti caste
movement. Recently feminist scholars have critique both
professional and intimate feminist. The dalit feminists are not
seeking to fill blank space of academic feminism.
Tharu and Lal'itha in two volume on ‘Women Writing in India’
noted that they had little material by dalit and tribal writers andmunotes.in

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46hoped that the anthology would inspire future volumes with more
literature.
Let us check your progress:
Q. Critically evaluate new Dalit Feminism.
Q. Wr ite a note on Reorienting Women’s Studies as Tritiya Ratan.
3.5.2 Dalit Feminism in Maharashtra:
The oral history of Ambedkar movement recovered the
forgotten chronicles of dalit and women’s movement. It is clear that
we know very little from the ‘ silent years’ of dalit feminism. Dalit
interrogate this silence by remembering the history and critical
memories of the period spanning the 1920’s to the present.
3.6 WRITING CASTE/ WRITING GENDER:
TRANSLATING TESTIMONIES/ TRANSLATING
STANDPOINT
3.6.1 De bating the Consumption of Dalit Autobiographies:
Recently there has been spurt of interest in dalit life
narratives by mainstream English publishers. Scholars have argued
about thriving dalit creativity in various Indian languages. While it is
a positive d evelopment, the question about the politics of
translation and publication cannot be bypassed. While Dalit voices
have become accessible and casteism is exposed, it is important to
remember that there is a politics of selection of work in terms of
what is translated and by whom. We also need to remember that a
new area is always dangerous and fascinating and the role of Dalit
writing in sensitising the young shouldn’t be underestimated.
Several scholars have also tried to link it to the globalizing economy
and neo -liberal market.
Most of the recently published Dalit writings are
autobiographical in nature. Some scholars argued whether reading
and teaching of dalit autobiographies can radicals eth perception of
readers whereas others argued that these autobi ographies are not
‘sob stories’ but stories of anger against injustice. Others like
Anand Teltumbde finds the autobiographical narratives too
individualistic, often glorifying the author, romanticizing dalit
background and failing to represent collective p ain.munotes.in

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47Gail Omvedt highlighted the role played by Dalit writing in
increasing the awareness about Brahmanical domination of upper
castes in academics in India and scholars of South Asia in U.S.
It is not yet fashionable to do dalit studies. Dalit studies i sn o t
yet representing the ‘universal themes’ courses on Dalit writing
continue to be optional.
Dr. Ambedkar coined the word ‘Dalit’ in 1928 and the
concept of dalit literature came to be accepted by 1950’s. In 1961
the literature was renamed as ‘Buddhist ’.
Several Dalit scholars argued against Dalit writing and
autobiographies and compared it to ‘digging out stench from hateful
waste bins of the past’ outlined the significance of the narratives for
the community.
Some scholars traced the origins of the genre to the writing
and speeches of Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar. Dr Ambedkar had
meant to write his life narrative and three notebooks marked for the
purpose had been found in the study. Dalit narrative s cannot be
accused of bringing an undesired past into th e present instead they
are one of the most direct and accessible ways in which the silence
and misrepresentation of dalit has been countered.
The Dalit autobiography violates the bourgeois boundaries
and their life narratives became the testimonies that summoned the
tuth from the past, truth about the property and helplessness of the
Ambedkarite era as also the resistance and progress of the
Ambedkarite.
Constructing Dalit Feminist Padagogies is a difficult process.
Two models of including Dalit women i n the curriculum are
commonly practised.
1.Feminist -as-tourist
2.Feminist -as–explorer
The first model prescribes, ‘add dalit women and stir’ the
other suggests’ add dalit women as separate and equal’ The
explorer model constructs separate courses on dalit wo men
writings by largely falling into a framework of cultural relativism.
Oppositional Dalit feminists pedagogies, by contrast, are
built on a complex relational understanding of social location,
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483.7 SUMMARY
The earliest Lavani d ates back to the 17th century whereas
the 300 Powada’s to the early Maratha period. The Powada
became a major means of remembering the golden past of Maratha
Warriors. Most of the Powadas celebrated the brave deeds of the
Maratha heroes in the battle. The popular Marathi proverb held
Lavani and women responsible for the collapse of Peshwa’s. The
bodies of lower caste women were projected in Lavani as either
arousing or satiating male desire.
Constructing Dalit Feminist Padagogies is a difficult process.
Two models of including Dalit women in the curriculum are
commonly practised.
Feminist -as-tourist
Feminist -as–explorer
The first model prescribes, ‘add dalit women and stir’ the
other suggests’ add dalit women as separate and equal’ The
explorer model con structs separate courses on dalit women
writings by largely falling into a framework of cultural relativism.
3.8 QUESTIONS
1.Show how popular culture has been critiqued by Sharmila Rege.
2.Examin e the “Lavini” and “Powada” tradition of Maharashtra as
explored by Sharmila Rege.
3.Explain how the history of Lavani and Powada highlights the
exploitation of lower caste women with reference to Sharmila
Rege’s article on Popular Culture.
4.Critically evaluate the role of “Lavani” and “Powada” as an
instrument in creating Dalit Feminist Identity.
5.Elaborate on how Dalit Autobiographies impact the upper caste
literature?
3.9 REFERENCES
●Rege, Sharmila. (2006). “Writing Caste, Writing Gender:
Narrating Dalit Women’s
Testimonies”Zubaan Publications. New Delhi
●Omvedt, Gail. (1994). “Dalits and Democratic Revolution” Sage,
New Delhi
●Guru, Gopal. (2016). “Shifting Categories in the Discourse of
Caste and Class” EPW, Vol.
44(14): 10 -12
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494
CONTEMPORARY SOCIOLOGISTS -
LEELA DUBE & T.K OOMMEN (RELIGION)
Unit Structure :
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Inheritance of Property
4.1.2 Residence
4.1.3 Resident son -in-law
4.1.4 South -East Asia
4.1.4.1 Economic Roles
4.1.5 Female Sexual ity and Reproductive Power
4.1.6 Women’s Sexuality
4.1.7 Conjugal Relations and the character of Marriage:
4.1.8 Conclusion
4.2 T. K. Oommen
4.2.1 Introduction
4.2.2 Conditions for Formation of Nation
4.2.3 Territorialization:
4.2.3.1 Hindu Identity:
4.2.3.2 Classification:
4.2.3.3 Attitude towards Muslims:
4.2.3.4 Attitude towards Christians:
4.2.4 Communalization:
4.2.4.1Three Variants of Communalism
4.2.5 Homogenisation:
4.2.5.1 The Dilemma:
4.2.5.2 Obstacle in Homogenisati on:
4.2.6 Relativization:
4.2.7 Conclusion: Leela Dube -Kinship and Gender in
South and South East Asia
4.3 Questions
4.4 Referencesmunotes.in

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504.0 OBJECTIVES
●To understand the pattern of Kinship in South and South East
Asia
●To examine the pattern of inheritance and residence in South
and Southeast Asia
●To evaluate the various contributions of women towards
economy
●To describe the trajectories of nationalism in India
●To comprehend the concept of Territorialisation,
Communalisa tion, Homogenisation and Relativization
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Asia is a harbor of a variety of kinship systems.
1.Patrilineal
2.Matrilineal
3.Bilateral
South Asia is predominantly patrilineal. There are only two
important pockets of matriliny in the south -west and north -east.
South and Southeast Asia compromise countries from Afghanistan
in the west to the Philippines in the east.
Patrilineal: Under patr iliny both boys and girls take their social
identity from the father and are placed in his lineage, khandaan/
kutumb and family. A son is a permanent member of these units,
for a daughter, marriage implies loss of membership of her natal
home, and in norma l circumstances marriage is viewed as a must.
Matrilineal: In these communities, children of both sexes acquire
permanent membership of the mother’s descent group, which
consists of relatives connected through female links. A child derives
its social iden tity from its mother membership of a descent group
For.e.g Tarvad, Nayar, kpoh.
Bilateral: In bilateral societies a child is reckoned to be the child
equally of both its parents. There is no attempt at underplaying the
importance of their parents, but the mother’s biological role and
close relationship with the child tend to make her more important
and to establish her right over her children. Social identity is derived
from both the parents and the ancestors of both in different
directions are recognised as kin.munotes.in

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51Let us check our progress:
What are different types of kinship systems prevalent in Asia?
4.1.1 Inheritance of Property:
In much of Hindu South Asia property is inherited by male
heirs and transmitted through them. The daughters have on ly a
right to maintenance and to marriage -including gifts and goods
required for setting a household. Only sons have ancestral rights.
Recently a law has been introduced to give land and property rights
to daughters too.
In northern India, land is viewed as a male form of property.
There is a general feeling that if a daughter demands her share she
would risk the privilege of being invited to her natal home and
receiving periodical gifts and also the brother’s support.
Then o t i o nt h a tw h a ti sg i v e nt om a r r i e dd a u g h t e r sg o e si n t o
another family is very strong. Whereas in matrilineal Lakshadweep
island, men’s gifting of property to their children is considered as
contributing to fragmentation.
Streedhan has different impli cations in different areas and is
now being replaced by dowry.
4.1.2 Residence:
The ideal typical household in Hindu India and Nepal, is the
patrilineal and patrilocal joint family. Recently diversity in
occupation, migration and professional requirements have
contributed to the breaking up of joint families.
Despite the absence of a joint family, close male patri -kin
and their wives and children are viewed as belonging to one
‘family’. Even the nuclear family is generally supplemented with a
widowed moth er or father of a man, his dependent brothers and
sisters, all living together.
A girl is always socialized under the shadow of an imaginary
mother -in-law. A bride enters her new home as an outsider who
has to be incorporated into the family. She was look ed upon as
dangerous who needs to be contained and controlled. The main
conflict is between the mother -in-law and daughter -in-law. It is the
tussle of power which is understood by the culture.munotes.in

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52An important implication of residence in patrilineal, patriloc al
communities of South Asia is women’s loss of rights in her natal
home and acquisition of no rights over space as such. Her living in
the new home is in a way conditional depending on her ‘proper’
behaviour, efficiency in household work, service to elder s,
husband’s pleasure, the gift that she brings and perhaps her
earnings. It is common for a woman to be driven out of the affinal
homes for serious as well as trivial reasons.
4.1.3 Resident son -in-law
The terms used for him are very insulting: he is var iously
called a pariah dog, an ass or a lazy, good for nothing fellow. The
parents of an only daughter find it difficult to persuade their son -in-
law to live with them. However it is always looked down upon.
In Lakshadweep a man lives with his matrilineal kin while his
wife lives with her matrilineal kin; he is a nightly visitor to his wife’s
home. Children belong to women, houses too belong to women.
Let us check our progress:
Which are the different forms of residence and property inheritance
found in A sia?
4.1.4 South -East Asia
Bilateral Southeast Asia presents a contrast to patrilineal
South Asia. There is no cultural compulsion for descent line or the
continuity of a family. A couple may live with or near the wife’s or
the husband’ s parents. The parents look forward to being cared for
by their daughter in old age in South East Asia. They prefer to live
with their daughter's father in law.
There is a certain amount of openness of the household for
the kin of both spouses. The couple tend to locate themselves
according to where income and housing are available.
4.1.4.1 Economic Roles
In SouthEast Asia women, besides being wives and
mothers, have always engaged in income earning activities. Their
task has brought them economic indepen dence and large
measures of autonomy and power. It is true of Thai, Malaysian and
Filipino women. In societies like Atjehnese, where men are always
away from home for much time, women manage both agricultural
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53All over South East Asia wo men are known for their
presence in trading. They trade surpluses and make and sell food,
clothes and a variety of items. The embroidery and batik work of
this region are famous. Women’s presence in rural and urban
markets is overwhelming. This role has in several places been
carried over into the modern economy.
Throughout South East Asia women are thought to be ‘good
with money’ and generally superior to men in financial management
and business dealings. Many women are least assured of the
regular income that is necessary to meet their ‘families’ needs.
In uxorilocal residence a daughter’s economic contribution is
clearly recognized. She brings in adult male labour at marriage and
creates still more labour through her reproductive ability.
Let us check our progress:
Q. Write a note on the economic role of women in south east Asia.
4.1.5 Female Sexuality and Reproductive Power
Virginity at first marriage is a value cherished in both
Hinduism and Islam. The period between pu berty and marriage is
looked upon as a luminal one, when girls need protection from the
opposite sex.
Women in South East Asia need to be guarded after
marriage as well. Both Nikah and Hindu marriage are supposed to
establish a man’s control over women’s body and being. The
principle of protection is basic to the family. Brother’s vigilance over
the honour of their sisters is well known. The examples of brothers
killing their sisters for love and marriages on their own are common.
Male exercise power over the females in every facet of their lives
and behaviour. Controls are imposed on physical movement and
associations with males. The major mechanism for imposition of
control is segregation, seclusion and restriction on movement with
opposite sex.
Efforts are made to keep females occupied with feminine
skills so that their minds do not stray.
4.1.6 Women’s Sexuality:
Another kind of corporate control relates to rights of access
to a woman’s sexuality. The notion of common patrilineal bloodmunotes.in

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54allows the broth er to supplant the woman married to one brother
accessible to the other brother. Khasa fraternal polyandry and the
sharing of a woman among Jat brothers are good examples.
In another uncommon example the woman's sexuality is
used by her husband for earnin g money. Doms of Uttarkhand are
known to send their wives for prostitution in order to repay debt.
The children born to these women belong to their husband.
In South east Asia female sexuality is not placed under such
restrictions. In Malaysia, both sexes have the same code of
conduct. Once married women are much more free. In the
Philippines, despite the notion of machismo and feminism taken
from Spanish culture, women are considered quite capable of
looking after themselves.
Prostitution is common due to poverty. It is not approved of
but is looked upon as means of making a living. There is an
obligation on daughters to support their parents, but it is not
impossible for these women to leave this profession to get married.
Parda amongst females is foll owed in Indian patrilineal
society to avoid the chance of the covetous eyes of other male
members, to sustain the authority and status of elders, and to
protect women’s sexuality from men.
Let us check our progress:
Give a detailed description on female s exuality and reproductive
power in Asia.
4.1.7 Conjugal Relations and the character of Marriage:
Marriage in Hindu South Asia has sacred character. The
ritual emphasizes the giving away of a bride to a worthy groom
along with complementary dowry. A clear distinction is made
between the first marriage, solemnized with full rituals and second
marriages are of lower worth.
Both widows and divorces with children find it difficult to
remarry. Customarily they are expected or allowed to remarry
someone from the husband's family or lineage. In the case of an
unrelated man, the family may not allow the woman to take away
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55In respect of conjugal relations there is a sharp contrast
between South Asian and South East Asian Muslims. Among the
patrilineal Muslims of South Asia the relationship between spouses
is of superiority and inferiority. Both wi fe and children belong to
man. There is a clear transfer of authority at marriage. A woman’s
right to divorce is limited: but a man can divorce his wife without
assigning any reason. There is no stigma attached to divorce and
remarriage is common.
InMatr ilineal Societies ,t h ei d e ao fw o m e nr e n d e r i n g
personal services to their husband is almost non -existing. Divorce
doesn’t cause a serious disruption in the lives of the persons
concerned.
Among Malaya too, divorce is simple and may be initiated by
the wif e. The marital bond in the first few years of marriage is weak.
Malaya women also earn some income. It is also common practice
to put conditions into a marriage contract the contravention of which
automatically frees a woman from the marital bond. These
conditions include physical violence, the husband’s failure to
provide for the conjugal family and interestingly keeping or taking
the wife away from her kin.
Thai marriage has a specific character. Elopement can
establish a marital tie without any ceremony .
In the Philippines a woman has a strong position in the
financial affairs of the household. She takes both domestic and
extra domestic decisions.
4.1.8 Conclusion:
Bilaterality seems to enshrine the principle of flexibility.
Besides providing vital sta tistics of South and SouthEast Asia the
article poses a few fundamental questions.
●Is stable marriage absolutely essential for the continuity of the
family?
●At whose cost is this stability usually maintained?
●Is divorce always a disaster for the children of a marriage?
●Is the nuclear family, with rigid boundaries, good for human
relationships?
●Is authority a prerequisite for men having a sense of
responsibility towards wife and children?
●Can the protection of women and control over them, particularly
in relation to their sexuality, be delinked?munotes.in

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56Let us check our progress:
Q. Write a note on the conjugal role and character of marriage in
Asia.
4.2 T. K. OOMMEN
4.2.1 Introduction
T. K. Oommen argues that religious nationalism and
democratic polity cannot co -exist harmoniously, particularly in a
society characterised by religious diversity.
4.2.2 Conditions for Formation of Nation
Ther e are only two basic conditions for the formation of
nations.
1.The first condition is a territory on which the inhabitants have a
moral claim either because it is their original homeland or they
come to identify with it as their homeland and migrants,
colonizers or even conquerors. If people do not identify with the
land they migrate to , they remain an ethnic.
2.The second condition for the formation of a nation is a common
instrument of communication, a language. This language may
not be a highly developed o ne but good enough to transact the
business of everyday life. A nation that wants to modernize
either should develop their own language or adopt another
language. However this doesn’t mean that the adopted
language should necessarily displace the “national ”o n e .
4.2.3 Territorialization:
Territorialization is the tendency on the part of religious
groups to claim the specific territory as its exclusive household.
This claim is untenable in case of Islam, Christianity and Buddhism
(though they have sacred si tes and cities). Through conquest and
colonialism these religions have spread to vast territories far
beyond the lands of their origin.
4.2.3.1 Hindu Identity:
It is important to understand that Hindu identity is neither
entirely new nor completely old. T here are a series of Hindu
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571.Firstly Hindus are the original inhabitants of Hindustan. Hindus
have been in undisputed and undisturbed possession of land for
over eight or even ten thousand years before foreign invasio n.
2.Hindus are all those who pursue religions of Indian origin.
3.The conceptualization of Hindu is more restrictive and exclusive.
It includes
a)Only twice born castes -Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaishyas or
at best clean Shudras.
b)Aryabhumi, i.e North India. It e xcludes Panchamas, ex -
untouchables, Adivasis and Dravidians.
Hindu is thus defined in three different ways -territory, religion
and language.
4.2.3.2 Classification:
83% of the Indian population is classified as Hindu. The
undivided India had the lar gest Muslim population in the world.
Even after partition, India remains the second largest Muslim
country in the world. Similarly, 80% of the world’s Zorastians live in
India.
The Zoratrians have been in India since the 8th century. The
Muslims came to the Kerala coast in the 7th century. The Syrian
Christian has claimed to convert since 52 A.D. A majority of
Muslims and Christians have converted from Scheduled castes and
Scheduled Tribes. Therefore if one takes the criteria of nativity
seriously, a majo rity of Muslims and Christians have a better claim
to India after only 3,500 years.
If all religions of Indian origin are considered as Hinduism
then Sikh too claim to be viewed as the competing claims of two
religious nationalisms.
Generally speaking, H indu nationalists have an attitude of
indifference and tolerance towards the “migrant” religions -Jews,
Zoroastrians and Baha’is as they do not claim any part of the Indian
territory as their homeland and have not indulged in proselytization.
However they h ave a hostile attitude towards Christians and
Muslims.
4.2.3.3 Attitude towards Muslims:
The negative attitude of Hindu nationalists towards Muslims
is due to several reasons:
1.Population of Muslims in India is over hundred million and
constitute the singl emost important vote bank.
2.The neighbouring states of Pakistan and Bangladesh make the
relationship uneasy.
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584.Many Indian Muslims have not given up the claim to nationality
even after parti tion. Urdu is the exclusive language of Muslims.
5.Finally, the war over Kashmir is also another major factor
responsible for the tensions between the two,
4.2.3.4 Attitude towards Christians:
Due to hostility towards British Rule hostility also exists due to
continuing missionary activity of proselytization.
Hindu nationalists project Sanskrit as the common ancient
language of all Hindus and Hindi written in Devanagari script as the
national l anguage of India but there are several resistances in this
context.
1.Sanskrit is not a living language and it’s today spoken by only a
handful of people.
2.It is not true that Sanskrit is the exclusive heritage of Hindus.
Sanskrit is identified with Aryan Hi nduism.
Several other Indo -Aryan languages like Bengali and Marathi
are also equally developed like Hindi, Non -Hindi speaking
communities do not accept Hindi as the exclusive “national
language” relegating their own mother tongue. They refuse to
abandon t heir languages in favour of Hindi to facilitate establishing
aH i n d un a t i o n .
Let us check our progress:
Q. Write a note on territorialism in India.
4.2.4 Communalization:
Communalism has a positive as well as negative force. It
may be defined as t he tendency on the part of a religious collective
to claim that it is a political community.
4.2.4.1Three Variants of Communalism
1.Secessionists Communalism: A religious community defines
itself as an autonomous political community i.e an entity to have
its own state. This implies secession from the state to which
they are attached to. It is designated as secessionist
Communalism . The Muslim’s demand for Pakist an and the
Sikh’s demand for Khalistan are examples of it.munotes.in

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592.Separatist Communalism: In this type there is proclivity on the
part of the religious group to define itself as a nation i.e a
cultural entity with a territorial base. In order to maintain the
cultural identity they wish to have a separate political and
administrative arrangement. The demand for a separate Sikh
province within India as Punjab Suba is an example of it.
3.Welfarist Communalism: It is a demand by religious groups to
be recognised as su ffering from material deprivations, the
eradication of which could be met through measures such as
political representation, employment quotas, distribution of land,
industrial licences and so on.
The nature and content of communalism is inextricably
boun d up with the religious collectivity’s territorial base and spread.
If secessionist communalism invariably invites state repression,
welfarist communalism usually augments democratic culture.
Separatist communalism may graduate into secessionist or may be
scaled down into welfarist depending upon the manner in which the
demands are framed and articulated and on the state response to
them.
Let us check our progress:
Q. What are different variants of communalism?
4.2.5 Homogenisation:
The claim to na tionhood on the basis of religion means the
process of homogenisation. That means there is a belief and
imposition of common lifestyle.
The claim to nationhood or nationality by a reli gious
collectivity willy nilly implies the process of cultural homogenisation
i.e, evolving and imposing a common life -style. In independent
India this has been articulated in different contexts and forms.
Hindus and Sikhs were and to a certain extent eve nt o d a y
are sharing a common life -style; yet every effort is made to
overemphasize the specificities while ignoring the commonalities.
In the 1960's and 1970’s the preferred phase for
homogenisation was “indanization” which is now ‘Hindutva". They
propaga te a common life -style common to people of India as a
whole. Thus a Hindu is one who follows this lifestyle.munotes.in

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60If lifestyle includes matters of dress, food, worship styles, art
forms, marriage and family pattern, then there is very little common
even to Hind us of different regions and linguistic areas. However
we do not even deny the civilizational unity of India. For e.g.
Brahmin constitute the only pan -Indian Varna (caste), they too differ
vastly in their food habits. Thus though Brahmins are vegetarian,
the Bengali Brahmin was a fish eater and the Kashmiri Pandit a
meat eater. Thus vegetarianism is not common to all Hindus and
Brahmins. But beef is a taboo for believing Hindus and they do not
consume it.
It is important to recall that there have been sever al
mobilizations against cow slaughter emphasizing the fact that cows
are a sacred animal for Hindus. But beef is not a taboo for Muslims,
Christians and lower castes.
The Indian homogenization also surfaces in the context of
Uniform Civil Code. The comm on civil code for Indian citizens is
constitutional. But when it is advocated by Hindu nationalists the
conservative minority perceive it as a threat to their cultural and
religious identity.
In western society the notion of loyalty is understood as
political loyalty. For e.g. in matters of religion, Catholics who are
distributed into numerous state societies may have their terminal
loyalty to the Roman Catholic Church and order headed by the
Pope and not to the secular authority of the state of which they are
citizens.
4.2.5.1 The Dilemma:
The Hindu nationalist project of homogenization is caught in
internal contradictions. Homogenisation implies not only uniformity
but also equality. The constituency of the Hindutva ideology is
largely confined to the t wice born caste of the Hindu belt. It has
failed to gain the confidence of the Dravidian Hindus apart from Sc,
ST and OBCs who constitute the majority of Indian population.
4.2.5.2 Obstacle in Homogenisation:
Indian society is a democratic and culturally plural society.
1.Homogenisation invariably means to establish hegemony of the
dominant group annihilating the weak minority groups to
assimilate into the mainstream culture leading to eclipsing of
their identity.
2.Most of the states draw their population fro m diverse sources.
Thus assimilation and annihilation endangers diversity and
blocks the task of developing pluralism and democracy.
3.Contemporary societies are constantly exposed to external
influence through the process of globalization. In such amunotes.in

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61situati onit is necessary that one should celebrate diversity and
foster pluralism, nature intergroup equality and re -in force
democratic trends.
Let us check our progress:
Q. What is meant by homogenisation? Discuss factors affecting
homogenisation in Indian society.
4.2.6 Relativization:
Cultural relativism is a necessary corollary (result) of
homogenisation. Relativization is the tendency to all kinds of
inhuman and disparaging practices, be it Sati, untouchability,
maintena nce of particular diets, dress patterns and so on all of
which are justified in the name of religion.
Cultural relativism in the context of religion has two
dimensions. First it advocates human and irrational practices in
contemporary context. Secondly it insists on practices that are
incongruous and anomalous in modern society.
The Hindu conservative elements often justify and legitimize
practices such as Sati and untouchability in the name of traditions.
The Sikh adheres to the keeping of tradition and values of
pristine Hinduism. The Sikh adherence to the keeping of the five
K’s-
⮚Kesh (unshorn hair and beard)
⮚Kanga (comb)
⮚Kachh (knee -length pair of breeches)
⮚Karah (steel bracelet)
⮚Kirpan (sword)
Are also smack of religious relativism.
4.2.7 Conclusion:
The ideology of homogenization is not only meant to
standardize the values, norms and practices but it also implies.
a)Revival of obsolescent traditional values and norms and
practices which are not relevant to the present.
b)The imposition of those values on others like co -religionists and
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624.3 QUESTIONS
1.Examine in detail the kinship and gender relations in South Asia
and SouthEast Asia with reference to residence and Inheritance
of property.
2.Discuss Leela Dube’s ideas about kinship in south and south
east Asia with reference to female sexuality and conjugal
relations.
3.Examine in detail the kinship and gender relations in South Asia
and SouthEast Asia with reference to economic roles and
female sexuality.
4.Elaborate on the ways in which female sexuality and conjugal
relations are constructed in South and South East Asia.
5.Discuss how Territorialization and Communalization are
explained by T. K. Oommen in Indian context.
6.Elaborate on trajectories o f religious nationalism in India with
reference to territorialism and Relativization.
7.Comment on significance of Homogenization and Relativization
in the Indian context by T. K Oommen.
4.4 REFERENCES
●Dube, Leela. (2001). “Anthropological Explorations in Gender”
Sage publications, New
Delhi
●Oommen, T. K. (2001) “Religion as a Source of Violence. A
Sociological Perspective”
The Ecumenial Review. Vol. 53, issue 2, April 2001. PP 168 –
179
●Oommen T. K. (2005) “Crisis and Contention in Indian Society”
Sage publications.
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635
CONTEMPORARY CHALLENGES IN
INDIAN SOCIETY
STRATEGIES OF CASTE
MOBILIZATIONS
Unit Structure :
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Chapter Division
5.2 Introduction
5.3 Contemporary Challenges in Indian society
5.3.1 Unemployment
5.3.2 Fake news -
5.3.3. Lifestyle diseases1
5.3.4 Collapse of Financial institutions
5.3.5 Misuse of technology
5.3.6 The Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019
5.3.7 Migrant Crisis
5.3.8 Privatization of Education
5.4 Strategies of Caste mobilization
5.4.1 Dalit mobilization
5.4.2 Case study of two caste based movements
5.5 Summary
5.6 Questions
5.7 References
5.0 OBJECTIVES
●To introduce you to the concept of Human Development Index
●To develop an understanding about the indicators of HDI
●To analyse the situations which result in Low HDI
●To suggest measures to improve the HDI ranking of a nation
5.1 CHAPTER DIVISION
The present chapter is divided into two sections. The first
section discusses the present challenges in the Indian society. Themunotes.in

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64second section of the chapter focuses mainly on different castes
mobilizing two movements in our country.
5.2 INTRODUCTION
India is a unique country with one of oldest civilizations in the
world. Several groups from different parts of the world have
migrated, invaded our country. This creates diversity in the country.
With industrialization coming into the picture a new class e merged
in the cities –working class. After industrialization came the service
industry. Post 1991 with the introduction of liberalization brought
about massive revolution like Foreign direct investments, jobs in the
service industry like IT. We live in a dual world like where we have
sent Chandrayaan 2 a spacecraft to the moon. On the other hand,
we have a population below the poverty line 22 per cent as of 2011.
So, on hand we have a food crisis and at the same time as a
society we have the latest technol ogical advancement. Let us look
into some of the challenges at the present times –
5.3 CONTEMPORARY CHALLENGES IN INDIAN
SOCIETY
5.3.1 Unemployment
The unemployment rate in India in December, 2019 was
7.60% while in the month of April2020; it is 23.52% according to the
Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy report (CMIE)2. CMIE also
points out that 27 million youth in the age group of 20 -30years
have lost their jobs in the month of April 2020. The world now has
moved from globalization to the anti -global ization movement .W i t h
developed countries even becoming more protective about their
own economy and restricting imports. This process is called
protectionist policy . Countries like India in which the IT sector
boomed due to globalization would be collapsi ng massively . The
slogan now is globalization to localization in several countries like
America.Even Prime Minister, Mr. Narendra Modi has insisted on
this idea with the slogan 'vocal about local' and using local
products. Every country would now try to b e self -sufficient instead
of depending on export trade or even outsourcing their work which
in a way would create job losses at least massively in the short run.
5.3.2 Fake news -
Forward mat karo campaign and advertisements are made
to stop the forwards in whatsapp by film actors. Fake news has
been a major problem during pandemics like cov -19. For e.g. On
Rainpada, Maharashtra on July 1, 2018 five men were killed by the
villagers on the basis of the fake news circulated in the whatsapp
as men are coming to kidnap childrens in the village. Infact, these
men had come to the village to attend the market. During elections,munotes.in

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65pandemic fake news has created a lot of mess. The problem has
been that the governm ent had to create laws like in the lockdown
period spreading fake news, rumours can lead to an individual
being jailed under the Section 54 of Disaster Management Act,
2005.
5.3.3. Lifestyle diseases –
In 2017, India witnessed 61.8 per cent deaths due to non-
communicable diseases. NCDs majorly refers to cancers, diabetes,
hypertension, cardiovascular diseases, mental health and others.
These diseases are together created by a cluster of risk factors and
their determinants, like tobacco and alcohol use, unh ealthy diet,
lack of physical activity, regular exercise, overweight & obesity,
pollution (air, water and soil) and stress. These diseases are
human behaviour -driven and can be prevented at individual ,
family and societal levels. Lifestyle diseases have em erged from
industrialization and globalization of American, Chinese food
(Mathur, & Macarena’s, 2019).
Check Your Progress
1.Do you think fake news is problematic to explain. How?
2.State why lifestyle diseases have increased in the present
times?
5.3.4 Collapse of Financial institutions –
Financial institutions play a very important role in running the
country. It also provides a sense of security as people put their hard
earned savings in them. The collapse of financial institutions like
Yes Bank, Mutual Funds companies like Franklin Templeton
created an atmosphere of instability in the country. It makes people
distrust or causes anxiety among people to invest in banks in
general. Prominent Airlines like Jet Airways, Kingfisherrunning into
bankruptcy affects both families dependent on the companies as
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665.3.5 Misuse of technology –
Cheap internet and affordable smartphones has given rise to
a new set of problems like hate speech, TikTok addicts, craze for
likes. One can see the desire for likes among inte rnet users with
lines like ek like to banta hai , today is my birthday like my
comment. Hate speech here refers to the comments which people
write on youtube videos, twitter or Facebook. Even for silly reasons
people are expressing opinions and cursing each other. If one
observes these speeches it’s clearly evident the conservative views
of individuals. It also shows how people have started taking things
very personally and spend valuable time in social media and how
capitalist technologies have captured the minds of individuals. It
also shows the peer pressure among internet users to appear cool.
5.3.6The Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019 -
The 2019 Act amends the Citizenship Act, 1955, and seeks
to make foreign illegal migrants of Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhist s, Jains,
Parsis and Christians coming from Afghanistan, Bangladesh, and
Pakistan eligible for Indian citizenship These are persons
belonging to the six specified religious communities, from the three
specified countries, who entered India on or before D ecember 31,
2014 The implementation of CAA is problematic in a country like
India and several movements at grassroots to the National Capital
emerged for months opposing it
5.3.7 Migrant Crisis
Due to the lopsided development in which cities have been
more developed than villages, lakhs migrate to the city in search of
jobs.D u r i n gt h er e c e n tC o v -19 crisis the migrants were affected
psychologically, economically to a large extent as these people are
often living on daily wages. It was witnessed where lakhso fp e o p l e
tried to hitchhike, went on foot, cycled back home. Some females
even delivered babies in trains, roads, auto rickshaws, some died
due to accidents on the roads. RamachandraGuha stated that the
migrant crisis has been one of the greatest man ma detragedy in
India after Partition
Check Your Progress
1.Discuss the hate speech in Social mediamunotes.in

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672.What do you understand by CAA?
3.Give some examples of collapsed financial institutions.
5.3.8 Privatization of Education –
As on 1stFeb, 2020 the UGC website points out that there
935 Universities in India according to the UGC there are at present
349 private universities alone As one is aware the private
universities charge higher fees compared to state and central
universit ies this makes education access to only those who have
money. The diversified educational system in the country whereby
having International schools and on the other side where local
languages schools are being shut down creates a big gap in the
society.
5.4 STRATEGIES OF CASTE MOBILIZATION
Mobilization takes place when there are certain common
goals. These goals could be actually put into practice or remain as
dreams which are shown to people for votes. According to Kumar,
caste mobilization can be ea sily observed at two levels in Uttar
Pradesh: one at the level of caste connections organized by
different socio -political organizations like with education, religion,
political. For e.g.: A political party organized for all marginalized
castes. Second in the form of formation of single caste based
politics. A political party working for a specific caste within a
marginalized caste. Guru (2016) points out that there exists a huge
difficulty in categorizing the caste itself as there doesn’t exist a
common sh ared experience like with class. Every caste would
experience differently and it can even vary from one to another.
5.4.1Dalit mobilization
According to Kamal, Dalits struggle for their human rights
started alongside with the Indian struggle for freedom. It was a
movement where the Dalits Started To represent, insist on their
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68Dr. Ambedkar sought after political rights for Dalits from the British
directly and insisted on independent and exclusiv e rights.
Otherwise, Dalitswould have remained stuck in the web of political
‘co option.e. Lost in the merging political groups (Kamal, 2015).
5.4.2Case study of two caste based movements
1.Maratha movement –
The Marathas have traditionally been against reserv ations. In
1982, the Maratha Mahasangh led by Annasaheb Patil had
opposed caste -based reservations. Patil also sought a quota
system based on economic criteria only to later demand that all
Marathas be classified as backward (Kale 2006). Infact, many
those who demand reservation opposed the Mandal commission
recommendations i.e. reservation for OBC. Kumar points out that
the Marathas, have traditionally seen themselves as warrior
agriculturist caste, who have a stranglehold on Maharashtra’s
political leader ship. However, with the declining returns from
agriculture, the desire to take advantage of the post globalization
boom in the services and knowledge -based sector and
apprehension at the perceived rise of the other backward castes on
the political ladder l ed the community to demand inclusion in the
Other Backward Classes category. The Maratha movement started
slow but it took its peak on 13thJuly, 2016 when a 14 -year-old
schoolgirl belonging to the Maratha caste was brutally gang -raped
and murdered by allegedly four drunkards at Ahmednagar and they
demanded justice. Girls headed the movement. The peculiarity of
the movement was there was no s ingle leader and marches were
without any slogan and disburse without any speeches being made,
the placards and saffron flags they carry have no less of a
menacing message. They reiterate their demand for reservations,
initially the Maratha reservation was 16% however, at present it is
12 % in education and 13% in government jobs as on 2019.
2.Caste and politics in UP
During the 1950s the lower and backward castes were not
politically mobilized and were badly dominated by the upper castes
in all walks of life. There is no history of any anti -Brahmin
movement in north India during the colonial period. But 1960s
observed lower and backward castes as newly emerged important
political forces, opposing and giving stiff resistance to Higher castes
having domination over political power in India With the fall of
Congress government other political parties entered UP
prominently like BJP, SP and BSP. Post Mandal politics in U.P.
witnessed clashes between upper castes and OBCs on the one
hand and lower castes opposition to OBCs on the other. The
important point to observe is from mere passive public the political
behavior changed among Dalits when one of the Dalit leader came
into picture, specially a women as the Chief Minister.munotes.in

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69Check Your Progress
1.Discuss the Dalit struggle in few lines
2.State any one social movement based on Caste
5.5 SUMMARY
The first section of the chapter discussed the challenges
ahead for India like rising unemployment, over consumption of
internet, misuse of technology, fake news forwards, rising lifestyle
diseases, collapse of financial institutions, privatization of
educ ation. The second section discusses how caste mobilization
can change the political picture of the country and it can be a
problem in the longer run whereby ethnocentrism behavior could be
developed.
5.6 QUESTIONS
1.Discuss any five challenges in the Ind ian society in the present
times.
2.Write a note on two caste mobilized movement
3.Explain in brief the connection of caste and politics with
examples.
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706
RESURGENCE OF ETHNIC IDENTITIES,
GENDER AND MARGINALIZATION
Unit Structure :
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 The concept
6.2.1 Ethnic and ethnic group
6.2.2 Ethnic identity and Ethnicity
6.3 Types of Ethnic based movements in India
6.3.1 Linguistic Ethnicity
6.3.2 Religious Assertions and Communalism
6.3.3 Tribal Movements
6.3.4 Ethno -Nationalism
6.3.5 Regionalism
6.4 Case study of North East
6.5 Gender and Marginalisation
6.6 Summary
6.7 Questions
6.8 References
6.0 OBJECTIVES
●To learn about the different concepts related to ethnic identities.
●To develop an u nderstanding of different social movements
based on ethnic groups.
●To get a glimpse of movements in North East India.
●To get a conceptual clarity about Gender.
●To understand about the relationship between gender and
marginalization.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
As a member of society we play different roles. Our identities
keep on changing. The identities are attached to a number of
factors like family, education, surrounding and neighbours. In this
chapter we are basically trying to understand two topics. The fi rst ismunotes.in

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71focussed on ethnic identities and its resurgence (growth,
development) and the second section focuses on understanding
the gender marginalization process in our society.
6.2 THE CONCEPT
Understanding the meanings of the terms gives a clear view
of the background of the study. Hence it becomes necessary to
understand the different concepts. The following concepts are used
in the study -
6.2.1Ethnic and ethnic group
The term ethnic has its roots to the Greek word ethnos,
which describes a communi ty of a common descent (1)and ethno in
itself means nation. T.K. Oommen Notes that in contemporary
social science an ethnic group is characterized in terms of a
multiplicity of attributes -religion, sect, caste, region, language,
nationality, descent, race , colour and culture. This attributes singly
or in different combinations are used to define ethnic groups and
ethnicity (2). Max Weber used the term ethnic group to connote
those human collectivities which ‘entertain a subjective belief in
their common de scent because of similarities of physical type or of
customs or both, or because of memories of colonization or
migration’ (Weber, 1968: 389) (3).
Ethnic group can be categorized into two major types i.e.
Primary and Secondary. Primary ethnic groups are those which
exist in the same place in which historically they have been formed.
They are indigenous groups. Examples are the French in France,
Germans in Germany, and also Native Indians in the Americas,
Andalusia’s in Spain, etc. Secondary ethnic groups are those which
have their origin in society different from the one in which they
currently exist, as for example, the Italians, Germans, etc. in
Canada or the United States (4).
6.2.2 Ethnic identity and Ethnicity
Ethnic identity is formed by both tangible and intangible
characteristics. Tangible characteristics are like shared culture or
common visible physical traits. Intangible factors are what people
believe, or are made to bel ieve, to create a sense of solidarity
among members of a particular ethnic group and to exclude those
who are not members (1). Brass (1991:247) identifies three
processes for ethnic identity fo rmation and conflicts. 1. Intra -group
fight for control over material resources. 2. Inter -group fight for
rights, privileges and resources. 3. Conflict between the state and
the dominant group on the one hand, and the group that inhabits its
territory on t he other hand (5). Ethnicity is a social -psychological
process which gives an individual a sense of belonging and identity
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72Check Your Progress
1.Explain Ethnic and Ethnic group
2.Discuss Ethnic identity
6.3 TYPES OF ETHNIC MOVEMENT IN INDIA
Ethnic identity is fluid in nature and it evolves constantly. For
example –When you are in India you would call yourself a
Mumbaikar if you are born in Mumbai. When you go to America you
will be called an Asian. Priya (2016) discusses five types of ethnic
identity based movements in India like -
6.3.1 Linguistic Ethnicity
Language is an important component for ethnic identity in
India. Two examples of ethnic movements on the basis of language
are–For example in Tamil Nadu a DravidaKazhagam (Dravidian
Organization) movement in the state of Tamil Nadu in South India
in 1940s and 1950s was started. These groups protested the
adoption of Hindi as the national language by the government of
India. The movement gave the call for the separation of Tamil Nadu
from the union of India on the basis of identity centered on Tamil
language . Because of intense linguistic feelings, many states were
carved out based on languages by the State Reorganization Act of
1956.
Linguistic identity movements have also been seen in
Maharashtra through the son of the soil movement where the locals
have been demanding job losses and preference. Violence has
also erupted at times on people from other states of North India on
this basis.
6.3.2 Religious Assertions and Communalism
The rise of Hindu Muslim conflicts started with the Britishers
policy of div ide and rule continues even today. The recent rise of
Hindu Nationalism is also an expression of religious assertion of
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736.3.3 Tribal Movements
Tribals have been exploited through construction of dams
whereby they are uprooted from their o wn land. They have been
harmed through preservation of forest acts. The displacement led
to loss of culture, heritage and lives and have created several
social movements like Naxalism. Tribes are at times engaged in
armed rebellion against the state. It is a direct consequence of their
oppression, displacement, poverty and anger against their cultural
erosion under the onslaught of the dominant mainstream culture.
6.3.4 Ethno -Nationalism
This entails the transformation of ethnic groups into
nationalities a nd their demand for autonomous governance or even
secession as sovereign nation states. For e.g. the secessionist
movement in Kashmir, the Khalistan movement by Sikhs in Punjab
in 1970s and 1980s for a separate homeland and the Naga
movement in North -East India.
While commenting on ethno -nationalism in Punjab, Gupta
(1990: 521 -38) Gupta says that the Punjab agitation began with
very secular demands like demands for the city of Chandigarh,
water distribution and territorial demarcation, but it was soon
ethnicized by the political masters and given a communal color as if
they were fighting to safeguard the religious and regional identity of
Sikhs in Punjab. Ethno -nationalism in Kashmir, Varshney (2010)
says that Kashmir presents a very complex situation. The ethno -
nationalism that stimulates the Kashmiri aspirations for
independence has many internal contradictions –it appeals only to
the Muslims in the Kashmir valley, but not to the Hindus in the city
of Jammu or Buddhist in the region of Ladakh.
Check You r Progress
1. Explain Linguistic Ethnicity
2.Discuss Ethno nationalismmunotes.in

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746.3.5 Regionalism
This kind of movements centers around three main factors: i)
fear of being assimilated into the dominant culture and, hence, to
preserve one’ s language and culture by demanding an autonomous
state, ii) the lopsided economic development of India where certain
groups feel that they have been left behind despite being rich in
resources in their regions and iii) nativistic tendencies –sons of the
soil concept in which regional identity becomes the source of ethnic
conflict. Examples include the Jharkhand movement in the state of
Bihar and Telangana movement in the state of Andhra Pradesh, the
attack on South Indians in Mumbai in 1960s (6)
Check You r Progress
1.Discuss Tribal movements
2.Explain Regionalism
6.4 CASE STUDY OF NORTH EAST
Northeast India (NEI) consists of eight states with people of
varied cultures, traditions, rituals, languages, and habits. They
belong to more than 300 tribes and subtribes. The state of
Arunachal Pradesh alone has 111 tribes. The region is precariously
situated as it shares almost 98% of its boundary with neighbouring
countries and only 2% with Indian Union. The region shares its
boundary with Bangladesh, Bhutan, Myanmar, China and Nepal.
With just a few exceptions, most of them live in the hills. NEI is
associated with ethnic conflicts that have resulted in insurgency
and militancy. According to Sahni, (2001:4) conflicts in Northeast
are of three categories: Tribal group vs the state, Tribal vs Tribal,
and Tribal vs non -tribal.
In comparison with the oth er regions, the Northeast lagged
behind in education, health, technology, transport and
communication. Frustrations arose from within, when the region
couldn’t match up with the development pace of the other parts ofmunotes.in

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75the country. Plus, having to face innum erable everyday local
hazards built up a sense of dissatisfaction among its people, which
then forced them to turn to violence in the name of ‘survival’.
Borgohain and Singha, (2014) points out that over the years, the
region has experienced various kinds of conflicts and movements,
ranging from mass civil -disobedience against Indian state, ethnic
and communal riots to armed militancy, to secede from India and
even genocide.
Check Your Progress
1.Introduce the North East ethnic identity movements
Military high handedness is the introduction of the Armed
Forces Special Powers Act (AFSPA) that gives additional power to
the armed forces, in order to control any violent situation. This has
paved the way for a lot of human rights violations, especially in the
state of Manipur. IromSharmila a 28 year old woman, was on strike
for 16 years against the AFSPA.
Naga insurgency started in the 1950s and is known as the
mother of all insurgencies and considered to be one of the oldest
unresolved armed conflict s, not only in India but all over the world
(Prakash, (2011).Nagaland movements still continue with its
demand for a separate flag and constitution.
Manipur tops the list with forty such organisations, six of
which are banned, and in addition there are nine active and twenty -
five inactive rebel groups. Assam is next on the list with thirty four
rebel groups: two of which are banned, with six active and twenty -
six inactive armed groups. Meghalaya has four armed rebel groups,
of which three are active and one inactive. Mizoram has two rebel
organisations and both are listed as active. Nagaland has two
active and two inactive groups of rebels. Tripura has two rebel
groups that are banned, in addition to one active and twenty -two
inactive groups. Only Arunach al, according to this count, has no
armed rebel organisation (Mahanta, 2013).
It is a common practice that when a demand of an ethnic
community is not fulfilled by the government, they make
movements demanding a separate state for their own ethnic
commun ity. The communities that are demanding separate
statehood include Khasis, Bodos, Garos, and Kharbis (Deka and
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76The Assam Movement was led by students unions whose
main strategy was to refrain from elections. This strategy became
the m odel for other ethnic movements that cropped up throughout
Assam in the post 1985 period. Among these, the most significant
and enduring was the Bodo land movement, which indeed finds
many parallels with the Assam Movement in its strategies of
collective m obilisation and political bargaining (Sharma, 2006). One
of the major reasons for the Assam Movement was the issue of
language. The two successive language movements in the state
witnessed violent conflicts between ethnic Assamese and Hindu
Bengalis (Borah ,2 0 1 2 )( 7 )
Kothari (1988) stresses that ethnic u psurges and assertions
of cultures in India are the consequences of excesses of
modernization and the homogenizing trend of modern states and of
their technological/educational imperatives (6). In his words,
ethnicity, is a response -including reaction –tothe excesses.Xaxa
points out there are factors like hierarchy, discrimination and lack of
development which leads to rise of ethnic movement
(8).Sometimes it is also due to fear of domination of the majority
culture over the minority culture which leads t o the rise of the ethnic
movements. Priya (2016) notes that intense feeling of alienation
among the tribes of India because of faulty development policies,
leading to forced displacement from their age -old inhabited land
and forest, reducing them to abject poverty and destitute (6).
Check Your Progress
1.Explain the Assam movement
2.Discuss in brief about the Naga movementmunotes.in

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773.Write a note on the causes for ethnic movements in North east.
Ethnic movements could be minimised through proper
development which could be through government or civil societies.
For e.g. Former Director General of Police, Maharashtra, Mr. D.
Sivandhan, who was involved in bringing peace to the city by
handling sever al underground crimes realised that people getting
into crime due to hunger. He thereafter started his own NGO called
Roti Bank. The goal of the NGO is to eliminate hunger, malnutrition,
and food wastage. The process involves the excess food from
weddings, events, hotels, cafeterias, housing societies are given to
people who are in need like slums, foot paths. In addition, everyday
freshly cooked food is offered to several groups and children as
they have to eat healthy food. The NGO has a helpline through
which it picks food through a van and redistributes it. At present the
NGO works in Mumbai (8).
Check Your Progress
1.Write a note on Roti Bank Ngo
2.According to you, how ethnic identities based movements could
be minimised in the Indian society?
6.5 GENDER AND MARGINALIZATION
Gender is a socio -cultural and it is a construction of human
beings. Gender refers to the qualities, behaviour, patterns, roles
and responsibilities assigned to a human being on the basis of sex.
It is important to understand the connections between gender andmunotes.in

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78other hierarchies of class, caste, race, first world and third world
etc.
Space is also gendered for e.g. Men standing in the markets,
tea shops whereas if a woman does it won’t be considered as
respectable. Even the use of language shows the gendere dn a t u r e .
For example –Several curses if one observes have derogatory
marks addressed towards women (Bhasin, 2014).
Anupama Rao (2003) points out that a woman from a
marginalized caste gets affected three times more. For example –
Being Dalit women she suffers from caste injustice. She is a victim
as a woman herself and does double work like working at
construction site as a labour and working at home too. Apart from
that she has to bear with her husband if he turns out to be an
alcoholic or someone the n the problem worsens. In addition, to
class and being a woman she is more vulnerable from other men of
higher castes.
National commission Human rights report (Sarojini, 2006)
points out that the Rural women suffer more than that of the urban
women. This is due to the medical facilities available in the cities,
transportation facilities, educational facilities available in the cities.
Even in the 21stcentury crimes have been continuing on
women like the Nirbhaya case. It is the woman who gets affected
more during any kind of crisis. For example –During the Cov -19
lockdown women have walked even if they were pregnant to reach
their home. Some gave birth on the road and walked for 150 km the
next day. There are women who gave birth in Auto Rickshaw as
they were refused by several hospitals as hospitals have been
converted to Cov -19 centres. There are times when women were
refused just because they belonged to certain religious groups and
the hospital staff had their own religious prejudices.
Though we h ave examples of several states in India who are
doing better in terms of dealing with gender aspects like North east,
Kerala.Everyone knows the problem faced by the different
marginalized groups. The question lies in how to solve the problem.
The first ch ange has to start from home where stereotypical gender
habits are not cultivated in the child like girls are supposed to like
pink, play with dolls or boys with cars. Secondly, the child has to be
taught to respect everyone irrespective of their gender. Sc ientific
temper, curiosity should be cultivated among children. Discussion,
debate needs to take place at home, school where the child is
taught to question the existing norms. His/her thoughts need to be
allowed to express. Mother has to be part of the de cision at home.
As mother and father act as a model in becoming a template for the
children as an adult.munotes.in

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79Check Your Progress
1.Explain Gender as a socio -cultural construct
2.According to you, how could the gender discrimination be
reduced in the society?
6.6 SUMMARY
In this chapter we saw the meaning of ethnicity as a social -
psychological process which gives an individual a sense of
belonging and identity. It emerge so f t e nd u et om i g r a t i o n ,
colonization, displacement etc. In addition, we saw the different
types of ethnic movements in our country like linguistic, regional,
religion based etc. Different examples have also been shared like
that of Punjab, Kashmir, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra. The second
section of the chapter discusses gender and its marginalization in
society.
6. 7 QUESTIONS
1.Explain Ethicnic movements in India ?
2.Explain Gender as a victim of marginalization .
6.8 REFERENCES
1. https://www.britannica.com/topic/ethnic -conflict
2.
https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/116426/6/0
6_chapter%201.pdf
3. http://www.sagepub.net/isa/resources/pdf/Ethnicgroup2014.pdf
4.
https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/68 /2/Def_Dim
ofEthnicity.pdfmunotes.in

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80Isajiw, W. W. (1993). Definition and dimensions of ethnicity: A
theoretical framework. Challenges of measuring an ethnic
world: Science, politics and reality ,4 0 7 -427. The article is
accessible in the above link and the same p aper has been
presented at "Joint Canada -United States Conference on the
Measurement of Ethnicity", Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, April 2,
1992.
5.
https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/191977/12/
12_chapter4.pdf
https://rotibankfoundation.org/about -us/
6. Priya, A. (2016). Ethnicity in Post -independent India: A
Sociological Perspective on Its Causes and Manifestations.
IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 21(1), 56 -61.
7.
https://shodhganga.inflibnet. ac.in/bitstream/10603/191977/12/
12_chapter4.pdf
8. Sarojini N.B. et.al (2006), Women’s Right to Health, National
Humans Right Commission, New Delhi.
https://nhrc.nic.in/sites/default/files/Womens.pdf
9. Bhasin, K. (2014). Understanding Gender: Gender
Basics. New Delhi: Women Unlimited .
10. Rao, Anupama (2003) Gender and Caste. Kali for Women &
Book Review Literary Trust, Delhi.
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817
SOCIO -CULTURAL LANDSCAPE OF
MAHARASHTRA: REGIONAL DIVERSITY
AND COMMUNITIES
Unit Structure :
7.0 Objectives
7.1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF MAHARASHTRA
7.1.1 Etymology
7.1.2 Historical Background
7.1.3 The Social Reform Movement and Nationalist
Movement
7.1.4 Regional diversity: Geographical features of
Maharashtra
7.1.5 Religious diversity of Maharashtra
7.2 CULTURE OF MAHARASHTRA
7.2.1 Festivals of Maharashtra
7.2.2 Folk Music and Dance
7.2.3 Folk Art Forms
7.3 Conclusion
7.4 Summary
7.5 Questions
7.6 References
7.0 OBJECTIVES
●To understand the historical background of Maharashtra
●To examine the socio -cultural elements of Maharashtra
7.1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF MAHARASHTRA
7.1.1 Etymology
The name Maharashtra is also the land of the Marathi
speaking people, and is derived from the Sanskrit words Maha
meaning ‘Great’ and Rashtra meaning ‘Nation’. Put together, it
means a great nation. Several scholars trace the origin of the
name Maharasht ra to varied sources. Dr. R.G. Bhandarkar
observes that the name Maharashtra refers to a community of
people known by the name Rashtrika orRathika. Whereas Dr. S.V.munotes.in

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82Ketkar argues that the name Maharashtra arose out of the
combination of two names, viz., ‘Mahar ’ who were the first
inhabitants and Ratta. Maharashtra and Marathi language are
closely related. The widely accepted understanding is that
Maharashtra is a land of people who speak the Marathi language.
It is believed that the Marathi language ori ginated in Maharashtra
as a Prakrit language somewhere around the 10thor 11thcentury
AD.
7.1.2 Historical Background
Reference to Maharashtra is seen in recorded history in the
2ndcentury BC, with the construction of its first Bud dhist caves.
Huan Tsang, the contemporary Chinese traveler wrote an account
of Maharashtra in the 7thcentury and called it Mo -ho-lo-cha
(Moholesh). He discussed the features of the region as being rich
and fertile and highly productive, while its peop le were fond of
learning and strong of character. The Chinese traveler was
impressed by the prosperity of the region, the efficiency of the
administration and character of the people. According to recorded
history, the first Hindu King ruled the state dur ing the 6th century,
based in Badami. This is also considered as the beginning of the
historical past of Maharashtra. Over a period of time, the term
Maharashtra came to be used to describe a region which consisted
of Aparanta (Northern Konkan), Vidarbha , Mulak,etc. Tribal
communities such as the Nags, Munds, and Bhills inhabited this
area. Maharashtra in its present form and boundaries emerged in
12thto 13thcentury A.D. During this period Maharashtra was able
to carve a distinct regional identity for itself. The Marathi language
as we know it today is the result of efforts of saints like
Dnyaneshwar, Chakradhara Swami, and others.
Maharashtra was under siege from various ruling dynasties
from the ancient times. The Satavahanas, the Vakatakas, the
Chalukyas and the Yadavas ruled Maharashtra at different times.
Around the 13thcentury, a new era began in the history of
Maharashtra with the Muslim conquests. For more than 300 years,
Maharashtra remained under the rule of Muslims Sultans like
Tuglaq, u ntil the rise of Marathas under Chhatrapati Shivaji, from
the middle of the 17thcentury to early 19thcentury. This period was
considered as the most significant chapter in the history of
Maharashtra. Shivaji Bhosle, the Maratha warrior King, was the
founder of the Maratha Empire who fought against the Mughals.
References to the glorious Maratha empire can be found in
the travelogue accounts of Arab Geographer, Al -Biruni, Friar
Jordanus, and Ibn -Batuta, the African traveler. The Marathas came
into po litical prominence only in the 17thcentury under the
leadership of Shivaji, who transformed the land into pan -Indian
power in the 18thcentury under the Peshwas. By 1680, the year ofmunotes.in

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83Shivaji’s death, nearly the whole of Deccan belonged to the
Maratha emp ire. Shivaji was a mighty warrior and one of the finest
rulers of India holds a proud position in Maratha history.
The British entered India as merchants and traders and
gradually took administrative control of the region. In the 17th
century, they str uggled to establish dominance over the West Coast
and regarded the growing influence of Shivaji as a potential threat.
In the midst of this adversity, the Marathas showed courage to
challenge the British rule in the nation. It also reflected how the
Marat has strived to preserve and maintain their empire, nationality,
religion, honour and their beautiful language.
7.1.3 The Social Reform Movement and Nationalist Movement
The elite of Mumbai and Pune were influenced by Western
Education and Philosophy pavi ng the way for the Social Reform
Movement of the 19thcentury Maharashtra. Social evils such as
untouchability, sati, female infanticide, restriction on widow
remarriage were severely criticized and attempts were made to
tackle these. Prominent social re forms were Balshashtri
Jambhekar, Gopal Hari Deshmukh, Jyotiba Phule, Savitribai Phule,
Justice Ranade and Ramkrishna Gopal Bhandarkar established the
Prarthana Samaj, an organization for general social and religious
reforms.
Apart from socio -religious reforms, Maharashtra also
contributed to the freedom movement of India. Prominent
revolutionaries such as Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, Dadabhai
Naoroji, Bal Gangadhar Tilak were involved in the movement. Dr.
B.R. Ambedkar, the chief architect of the Indian C onstitution also
created social and political awareness among the Scheduled
Castes of India.
After independence, The Indian National Congress pledged
to create a State on linguistic consideration. Thus a bilingual State
with Maharashtra -Gujarat with Bom bay as its Capital came into
existence February, 1956. After much agitation Maharashtra was
conferred statehood on 1stMay, 1960 without the inclusion of
Belgaum, which later triggered the Samyukta Maharashtra
Movement. The State of Maharashtra was formed with Bombay
(then) as the capital, when the Marathi and Gujarati linguistic areas
of the former Bombay Presidency wer e separated. Maharashtra
became the main channel of cultural exchange between southern
and northern India.
Thus the efforts of saint poets, the social reformers, and
social constructive workers have carved Maharashtra into a
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847.1.4 Re gional diversity: Geographical features of
Maharashtra
Maharashtra occupies a key position in western India,
constituting a major portion of the Indian Peninsula. It is the only
region in the south of the Vindhyas with Marathi, an Indo -Aryan
language. M aharashtra is bordered by the Arabian Sea and
Gujarat in the West, Madhya Pradesh in the east, Andhra Pradesh
and Karnataka in the South. It has an impressive coastline of about
720 kms.
The annual climatic pattern of the State typically consists of
four well -marked seasons. The cold, summer, monsoon and winter
seasons define the socio -cultural aspects of the State. The Western
Ghats region attracts rainfall and is a biodiversity hotspot and is
also listed on the UNESCO Heritage List.
The State has th ree broad physical divisions, viz., a) The
Konkan Coastlands b) Western Ghats or Sahyadris and other hill
ranges, c) Plateau region.
Apart from the geological or physical divisions, the State of
Maharashtra has been divided into five main regions accordin gt o
the historical and political sentiments. They are;
a)Vidarbha Region -(Nagpur and Amravati Division), Central
Provinces and Old Berar Region.
b)Marathwada Region –(Aurangabad Division)
c)Khandesh or Northern Maharashtra Region –(Nashik Division)
d)Desh or Western Maharashtra Region –Pune Division)
e)Konkan Region -(Konkar Division including Mumbai City and
Mumbai suburban areas).
For administrative purposes the State is divided into 6
revenue divisions, which are further divided into 35 district s, the 35
districts are further divided into 355 talukas.
Check Your Progress
1.Can you name some prominent leaders of Maharashtra?munotes.in

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852.Mention the physical divisions of Maharashtra.
7.1.5 Religious diversity of Maharashtra
The hallmark of Maharashtra is that it is a multi -religious,
multilingual and multi -ethnic society. The process of Modernization
is an important factor in this diversity as also the rich historical
heritage.
Hinduism: Hinduism is the religion of the ma jority of Marathi
people. Krishna in the form of Vithal is the most popular deity
amongst Marathi Hindus; they also worship the Shiva family deities,
such as Shankar, Parvati and Ganesh. Maharashtra has the rich
tradition of the Varkari sect. Saints wit hin the Bhakti movement
emerged from all castes -such as Dnyaneshwar (Brahmin) ,
Savata Mali (Mali), Tukaram (Kunbi) , Namdev (Shimpi -artisan)
and Chokhamela (Mahar).
Jainism : Maharashtra has a considerable number of people
belonging to the Jain tradit ion. The imprints of Jainism in
Maharashtra are as old as 5,000 years and are reflected in some
ancient temples of the State. This religion does not accept the
authority of the Vedas and therefore, got separated from orthodox
Vedic tradition and has since maintained a distinct identity.
Rishabhdeo or Adinath was the first Tirthankar or prophet of
Jainism, while Vardhman Mahavir was the 24thTirthankar.
Tirthankaras are revered persons, since Jainism does not believe in
the existence of God. The foundati on of Jainism is adherence to
non-violence and moral conduct. Qualities such as forgiveness,
tenderness, politeness, purity, truth, restraint, penance, non -
attachment and celibacy are quintessential features of the faith.
Christianity: The Christian c ommunity is spread across the length
and breadth of Maharashtra. Most Christians are Catholics, while
some adhere to Protestantism. There are a significant number of
Goans, Mangloreans, East Indians, Anglo -Indians, Malyali and
Tamil Christians in the u rban pockets of Mumbai and Pune. Mass
prayer followed by sermon takes place in the church every Sunday.
Though, traditionally the church service was conducted in English,
of recent Marathi is used to reach a wider category of faithfuls.
Serving humanity is the key principle of this religion. As a result, in
Maharashtra, we find hospitals, educational institutions,
orphanages run by the Church.munotes.in

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86Buddhism: Buddhism accounts for nearly 6 percent in
Maharashtra’s total population. Almost all Marathi Bu ddhists
belong to the Navayana tradition, a 20thcentury Buddhist revival
movement in India. This movement received its biggest impetus
from Dr. Ambedkar who called for the conversion of Dalits to
Buddhism in a bid to escape the unspeakable atrocities of a caste -
based society. Most Marathi Buddhists in Maharashtra are
followers of Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar.
Islam: Muslims belonging to the Sunni sect are in the majority in
the State, while those belonging to the Shia sect are mainly found
in the urban are as. Idol worship is forbidden in Islam. The faithful
worship the Darga and Pir. There is no Mosque or Darga of
regional importance in Maharashtra. However, at local level some
Dargas have attracted the faithful and attained prominence.
Among them are the Dargas at Mumbai, Miraj and Nagpur.
Zoroastrianism: Zoroastrians are also referred to as Parsis and
are mainly residents of Mumbai. According to tradition, the
present -day Parsis are descendents of Iranian Zoroastrians who
immigrated to Western In dia during the 10thcentury AD for fear of
being persecuted by Muslims in Iran. The Parsis landed in Gujarat
and have incorporated various cultural aspects from their adoptive
State. Amongst the most educated communities in India, the
Parsis have contri buted to the economic development of the State
as well as the country.
7.2 CULTURE OF MAHARASHTRA
Maharashtra is a melting pot of myriad cultures, and a
perfect blend of tradition and modernity. Maharashtra is a land of
culture and traditions, arts and crafts, religions and festivals, which
are occasions for social contacts and entertainment. The arts and
crafts in Maharashtra reflect the varied influences through culture
contact and diffusion of culture. Despite economic progress and
social change, the state’s people have fiercely guarded and
preserved their rich heritage of splendid heritage, art an d craft, folk
music, dance and religious practices. Maharashtra was guided by
social and political reformers and leaders who left an indelible mark
on its psyche, which is a combination of largeheartedness,
empathy, compassion, pride, cooperation and crea tivity, all of which
are reflected in its people. Maharashtra is rich in diversity, visual
art, natya sangeet, folk theatre, folk art, language and literature,
films and theatre, food and culinary delights, art and architecture,
natural and cultural herit age and drapes and clothing. However, in
this section the student will be introduced to a few of these:
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877.2.1 Festivals of Maharashtra : Festivals and lavish celebrations
are regular among the peo ple of Maharashtra, which showcase the
vibrant culture of the state. Some of the most popular festivals of
the state are as follows:
Ganesh Utsav : Ganesh Utsav is the main festival of Maharashtra.
It was launched by Lokmanya Tilak as a means of public arising,
marking the worship of Lord Ganesh, the deity of wisdom and
knowledge. This festival is celebrated not only among
Maharashtrians, but also other communities. It is said to be the
largest public festival in the world. Ganesh Chaturthi brings
together millions of faithful over a period of ten -day events.
Gudi Padwa : Gudi Padwa is celebrated on the first day of Chaitra
(month), welcoming the arrival of spring, joy and colour. It is
celebrated all over India in various forms and under different
names. In Maharashtra, it is hailed as the New Year Day of the
Hindu calendar. This day is devoted to Lord Brahma, the creator of
the universe. Many legends associate this day with the victory of
Lord Rama over demon Vali. Gudi padwa is an auspicious da yf o r
a new beginning or a new venture. It also means riding over
negativities of the previous year. On this day households are
decked with Gudi, the holy symbol.
Holi: Holi is celebrated throughout the country as also
Maharashtra, which is the burning of the symbolic Holi (fire) the
previous night to get rid of their sins and embark on a joyful future.
This is followed by Rang Panchami, a celebration of colour and life.
Gokul Ashtami : Also known as Janmashtami, this festival is
celebrated around Aug ust according to the Hindu calendar. It is
called Dahi Handi in local lingo, wherein young boys called
Govindas, regarded as companions of Lord Krishna, make human
pyramids and bread the handis (earther pitchers) that are filled with
cash and other prizes . Nowadays, girls also participate in making
pyramids. Due to several mishaps, the court has intervened in
terms of regulating the age of participants and the height of handis.
Diwali, Dasara and Navratri are other celebrations with their own
significa nce. There are some local or regional festivals such as
Bail Pola. In an agrarian society, bullocks are considered as an
important tool of production. In a true spirit of man -nature
relationship, Bail Pola (a day to feed bullocks), is marked to worship
the bullocks used for agricultural production.
A major festival in Vidarbha, it is not celebrated on such a
grand scale elsewhere in the State. On this day, every farmer
gives a holiday to the animals, bathes and decorates them, feeds
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88There are festivals important for each community. The
complete symbiosis of Hindu, Jain, Buddhist, Muslim, Christian,
Parsee and Jewish religions and celebrations is an integral part of
Maharashtra’s culture.
7.2.2 Folk Music and Dance: Various dance traditions and folk
music provide an interesting insight into the state’s rich past. Folk
music forms like Gondhal, Lavani, Bharud and Powada represent a
slice of the culture of a particular region. Some dances like the
Dindi have a religious base. Dindi is performed with great devotion
on Ekadashi while worshipping Lord Vitthal. The believers reach
such a collective frenzy that it looks like a mass of devotees moving
like a single soul.
Tamasha is a traditional form of Marathi theatre, often with singing
and dancing. It is performed by travelling theatre groups. The songs
sung in the plays are Laavnis. Performed by the Kolhati community,
Tamasha essentially has two types -Dholki Bhaari and Sange et
Bhaari. The latter contains more dance and music than drama.
Powada: is a genre of Marathi poetry that emerged during the late
17thcentury in India. Also known as ‘Indian Ballad’, it is written in a
crisp narrative style. Historical events are usu ally narrated with the
underlying object to inspire and motivate the audience. Powadas
are composed and rendered by Shahirs. Powadas in the early
ages were composed by those who witnessed inspiring events.
Bharud is a popular folk art in rural areas. It forms an integral part
of village fairs. It comprises recitations of Saint Dyaneshwar and
his interpretation of Bhagavad Gita. Bharud is known to have
originated with Saint Eknath. Over centuries, it has become an
important medium to promote spirituality through elocution, music
and drama.
Gondhal: Devotees who perform the Gondhal are called
Gondhalis. The Gondhalis regard Parshuram, an avatar of Lord
Vishnu, as their patriarch. An ancient South Indian dan ce,
Gondhal was a progressive evolution of revered deities of the rural
folk and their devotional messages. Gondhal is in the narrative
form of the Ramayana and Mahabharata to the accompaniment of
instruments such as sambal and tuntuna.
7.2.3 Folk Art F orms: It is an expression of the intangible aspects
of life of its people. Its legacy transcends generations and lives
through its artistes. The State has a rich tradition of folk art that is
centuries old. The various tribal communities of Maharashtra such
as the Adivasis of the Sahyadri ranges, the Matherans of Gadvard
in Pali or the Thakkars of Pinguli, all have given life to many art
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89Warli art :W a r l ia r ti saw a l lp a i n t i n go ft h et r i b a l sw h oi n h a b i tt h e
north Sahyadri ranges. The art origina ted in Maharashtra and is
popular among tribes of Dahanu, Talasari, Jawhar, Palghar,
Mokhada and Vikhramgad, all located in Thane district. The art
uses mostly geometrical patterns such as a circle, a triangle and a
square –depicting nature and day to d ay activities of the tribals.
The circle represents the sun and the moon. The triangle is taken
from the mountains and pointed trees. The square indicates a
sacred space or a piece of land. Daily activities of hunting, fishing,
farming, festivals and d ances are reflected in the paintings.
Pinguli Chitrakathi: The Thakkar tribe of Pinguli village near
Kudal in Sindhudurg have been practicing Pinguli Chitrakathi since
the 17thcentury. It follows a unique sequence and is based on the
stories of Mahabh arata and Ramayana. The collection of pictures
is used to tell the story in the form of songs supported by traditional
music using indigenous instruments such as veena, taal and huduk.
This art form is almost extinct today as storytellers have migrated to
all over Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.
Bhitti Chitra: Bhitti Chitra is a traditional wall painting that depicts
religious themes on the walls of houses or temples. The Matheran
or Mahatma communities, who are traditional Bhitta Chitra ar tistes,
are well known for their mineral -painted depictions. Gold and silver
embossing technique is used to enhance the effect of the paintings.
Frescoed walls and delicate and intricate patterns in the ceilings
reveal the religious context of the work. In Maharashtra, the
Matherans live in Govard near Pali and are well recognized for their
paintings of the Gangaur idols.
7.3 CONCLUSION
The State of Maharashtra is found to be one of the most
developed states in terms of economic, education and health
sectors. The performance of this State is remarkably higher as
compared to other states. Maharashtra has a rich geographical
diversity which reflects in various facets of the social, religious,
economic and cultural life. Despite challenges and obstacle s,
Maharashtra has emerged strong in all aspects living upto its name
and rich legacy.
7.4 SUMMARY
The name Maharashtra is the land of the Marathi speaking
people, and is derived from the Sanskrit words Maha meaning
‘Great’ and Rashtra meaning ‘Nation’ .munotes.in

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90Maharashtra was under siege from various ruling dynasties
from the ancient times. The Satavahanas, the Vakatakas, the
Chalukyas and the Yadavas ruled Maharashtra at different times.
Shivaji Bhosle, the Maratha warrior King, was the founder of
the Maratha Empire who fought against the Mughals.
The British entered India as merchants and traders and
gradually took administrative control of the region. However, the
Marathas showed courage to challenge the British rule in the
nation.
Western Education and Philosophy paved the way for the
Social Reform Movement of the 19thcentury Maharashtra in a bid
to tackle social problems such as untouchability and sati.
Maharashtra occupies a key position in western India,
constituting a m ajor portion of the Indian Peninsula with abundant
diversity.
The hallmark of Maharashtra is that it is a multi -religious,
multilingual and multi -ethnic society.
Maharashtra is a melting pot of myriad cultures, and a
perfect blend of tradition and modern ity. Maharashtra is a land of
culture and traditions, arts and crafts, religions and festivals.
Festivals and lavish celebrations are regular among the
people of Maharashtra, which showcase the vibrant culture of the
state.
Various dance traditions an dfolk music provide an
interesting insight into the state’s rich past. Folk music forms like
Gondhal, Lavani, Bharud and Powada represent a slice of the
culture of a particular region.
The State has a rich tradition of folk art that is centuries old.
The various tribal communities of Maharashtra such as the Adivasis
of the Sahyadri ranges, the Matherans of Gadvard in Pali or the
Thakkars of Pinguli, all have given life to many art forms.
7.5 QUESTIONS
1.Discuss the historical background of the State of Maharashtra.
2.‘Regional diversity of Maharashtra lends the State a distinct
flavour’. Discuss.
3.Examine the culture of Maharashtra with reference to Folk Art
forms, festivals, dances, and religions.munotes.in

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917.5 REF ERENCES
●Maharashtra Ahead, vol. 5, Issue 02, February 2017
●https://dgipr.maharashtra.gov.in/UPLOAD/ELOKRAJYA/2017/0
2/8203.pdf
●https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/135731/18/18
_chapter%2011.pdf
●https://www.maharashtratourism.net/history.html
❖❖❖❖
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928
TOURISM IN MAHARASHTRA –
ECONOMY AND SOCIETY, FOOD
CULTURE
Unit Structure :
8.0 Objectives
8.1 TOURISM IN MAHARASHTRA
8.1.1 Benefits of Tourism
8.1.2 Maharashtra Tourism Policy 2016
8.1.3 Tourism Potential in Maharashtra
8.1.4 Creation of Special Tourism Zones
8.1.5 Future Tourism Development
8.2 ECONOMY AND SOCIETY OF MAHARASHTRA
8.3 FOOD CULTURE OF MAHARASHTRA
8.3.1 Region wise Food Specialties
8.4 Conclusion
8.5 Summary
8.6 Questions
8.7 References
8.0 OBJECTIVES
●To examine the potential for tourism in Maharashtra
●To provide insight into the economy, society and culinary culture
of Maharashtra
8.1 TOURISM IN MAHARASHTRA
Travel and tourism has been one of the most dynamic,
economic and social growth activities o ver the past few decades.
While witnessing phenomenal growth in the twentieth century,
tourism has become the largest industry in the world today.
Tourism related activities are a central pillar of the service economy
offering sustenance to millions of people and contributing to
national income. It is also considered as an engine of growth and a
symbol of modernization. Tourism is projected as a ‘smokeless
industry’ and believed to offer an alternative to potentially damaging
forms of development such as mining, logging, industry ormunotes.in

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93exploitative use of wil dlife. It is estimated that 650 million people will
be traveling internationally at the beginning of the twenty -first
century. The number is expected to be over 1600 million by the
year 2020.
The overall development of tourism infrastructure coupled
with efforts by the government to promote tourism such as
appropriately positioning India on the global tourism map through
the ‘Incredible India’ campaign has begun to bear results. The
tourism trends have been encouraging. The growth of tourism in
India h as been rapid in the last five years despite a late start. This
can be attributed to the ever increasing middle class, increase in
disposable income, improved facilities, stress on urban families and
improved connectivity to tourist destinations. Tourist arrivals have
gone up by more than 25% and foreign exchange earnings have
jumped by 40%. The World Travel and Tourism Council has rated
India as one of the five fastest growing tourism economies in the
world.
8.1.1 Benefits of Tourism: The economic and multiplier impacts
of tourism are as follows:
1.Generation of foreign exchange
2.Creation of job and employment opportunities
3.Stimulation of trade and commerce and entrepreneurship
4.Provision of tourism and non -tourism related infrastructure
5.Improve regional development, especially in remote locations
6.Increase in tax revenues, leading to greater government
spending
7.Cascading of new money through a multiplier effect.
Considering the beneficial implications of tourism, the
Government of Maharas htra has identified Tourism as a priority
sector. The Government of Maharashtra proposed to launch the
new Maharashtra Tourism Policy, 2016 as a strategy to attract
private sector investments into the tourism sector. This policy aims
to create a pro -grow th, pro -environment and pro -jobs eco -system in
the state of Maharashtra.
8.1.2 Maharashtra Tourism Policy 2016 –Features and
Highlights
The Government of Maharashtra proposed the New
Maharashtra Tourism Policy (2016) which has replaced the earlier
Touri sm Policy of Maharashtra released in 2006. The highlights of
the policy are as follows:munotes.in

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941.Recognise Tourism as a priority sector since it holds immense
potential to usher economic development
2.Achieve sector growth of 10% per annum and share of 15% in
GDP th rough tourism and allied activities.
3.Generate fresh investments in the tourism sector to the tune of
INR 30,000 crore by 2025.
4.Incentivize tourism units in the State by linking it to the Package
Scheme of Incentives, 2013 of Industries, Energy and Labour
Department or any modifications thereafter.
5.Key strategic interventions are identified and special incentives
for respective intervention have been laid out.
6.Strengthening of tourism infrastructure especially in the form of
PPP (Public -Private Partnershi p) model, special tourism
infrastructure, Tourism Infrastructure Development Fund, CSR
(Corporate Social Responsibility), etc are defined in this policy.
8.1.3 Tourism Potential in Maharashtra
Maharashtra, one of India’s premier commercial and
industrial states, has recognized tourism to be a major thrust for
economic growth in the state. The Budget 2002 -03 for Tourism and
Investment Incentive Package 1999 gives clear indications that the
Government of Maharashtra realizes the potential of tourism for
wealth creation and employment generation. The state has good
physical, social and financial infrastructure and a relative
abundance of entrepreneurs. It is the most industrialized, second
most urbanized, and judged by the per capita income, the third
richest state in India.
In terms of population and area, Maharashtra is the third
largest state of India. It is located on the West Coast of India with a
distance of 720 km. long coastline along the lush green Konkan
region. Nestled in the Western Ghats and the Sahyadri mountain
range are several hill stations and water reservoirs with semi -
evergreen and deciduous forests. The Vidarbha region with its
dense forests is home to several wildlife sanctuaries and nature
parks. Thus all the three regions of Maharashtra offer considerable
tourism potential. Maharashtra abounds in numerous tourist
attractions ranging from ancient cave temples, unspoiled beaches,
ancient forts and monuments, unique hill stations, pilgrimage
centers, and rich traditions of festivals, art and culture. It is evident
that to the avid traveler Maharashtra has everything to offer except
the snow -capped mountains, which befits its tourism slogan,
“Maharashtra Unlimited”.
●The saying ‘India lives in its villages’ is relevant even today, in
the new millennium. Like India, Maharashtra too has a largemunotes.in

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95number of villages and a substantial proportion of its population
living in rural areas. About 58% of the total population of the
state lives in 43,722 villages. Rural Tourism and Agritourism
could be promoted considering the state’s potential.
●Maharashtra has a large number of forts which are valued not
only for their historical significance but also for their architectural
excelle nce. These forts will be conserved and developed by the
Archaeological Survey of India and State Archaeology
respectively.
●Application of Information Technology for Tourism thereby
facilitating effective utilization of website/portal for tourism
promotion as well as operationalisation of online bookings.
●Creation of awareness among the people about the importance
of tourism, tourism planning as also safety and environmental
awareness.
●Evaluation and outcome budgeting –From the financial year
2005 -06, Gover nment of Maharashtra has initiated the process
of evaluating each department by the outcome of their schemes.
The emphasis would be on the quality of actual utility and
outcomes of funds spent rather than merely spending funds.
Feasibility studies would p referably be undertaken before
embarking on tourism projects where huge investment is
required so that unfruitful expenditure can be avoided.
All these factors present a promising possibility of
substantially increasing the tourist attractiveness in the S tate, both
for the domestic as well as international traveler. To consolidate the
efforts further, the Tourism Policy of Maharashtra, 2016 is aligned
to the National Tourism Policy of 2015.
8.1.4 Creation of Special Tourism Zones
The new tourism policy ha s proposed to create new circuits
and special tourism zones with the financial assistance under
Central Financial Assistance (CFA) scheme under the Ministry of
Tourism which are as follows:
Sustainable Tourism : The State aims to promote the practice of
sustainable tourism ; all tourism activities with whatever motivation –
holidays, business, religion, adventure, conferences, ecotourism,
etc–need to fit into the definition of sustainability.
Rural Tourism : The State offers a unique tourism insight thr ough
its rural landscapes. The aim of this strategy is to promote rural
tourism as the primary tourism product. Its socio -economic benefits
would percolate to the rural areas and surrounding regions. This
will lead to a balanced and far reaching growth in the State.munotes.in

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96Caravan Tourism : Caravan tourism has become popular in the
last few years since it provides flexibility and freedom while
holidaying in the midst of fixed schedules. The specially built
vehicles for caravan tourism may include recreationa l vehicles,
campervans, motor homes, etc.
Film Tourism: Mumbai is the film, entertainment and fashion
capital of the country. It provides an ideal destination for this
segment. Along with the existing infrastructure in the Mumbai Film
City, film sets in other parts of the State will provide insights to the
visitor.
Religious Tourism : Maharashtra is known for its pilgrimage
centres like Ajanta and Ellora caves which are part of the acclaimed
Buddh circuit, Jyotirlinga, the AshtaVinayaka and other famo us
temples at Shirdi, Pandharpur, and Kolhapur. Special pilgrim
circuits will be promoted through various marketing efforts and tour
operators.
Heritage Tourism : All UNESCO world heritage sites will be
promoted through dedicated marketing channels, which will include
‘Road Shows’ in select regions. All the monuments under the
Archeological Survey of India, State Archeological Department,
Heritage buildings of M umbai will be a part of the heritage tourism
circuit of the state.
Beach Tourism : The Department of Tourism (DoT) will prepare a
comprehensive list of restricted and permitted activities for beaches
along the Maharashtra coastline. The DoT will give sp ecial
licenses to eco -friendly temporary construction on the beaches of
Maharashtra. They need to be eco -friendly and CRZ (Coastal
Regulatory Zone) compliant.
Culinary Tourism : The State has a wide range of delicacies from
the regions of Vidarbha, Mal van, Konkan, Kolhapur, street food of
Mumbai, etc. DoT will also promote special culinary events and
festivals in the State. It will also promote wine tourism through this
theme.
Adventure Tourism : Adventure tourism is the growing segment
within touri sm. The tourists in this segment often seek exceptional
and authentic experience. The State has a number of destinations
which can provide avenues for mountaineering trekking, river
rafting as adventure activities.
Nature Tourism : DoT will create natur e tourism zones and
promote it to the target audience. Activities such as hitchhiking,
jungle safari, nature trails, bird watching, balloon safari, etc. will be
undertaken. Specific regions across the State such as Melghat,munotes.in

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97Tadoba, and Pench wildlife san ctuaries will be earmarked for
nature tourism.
8.1.5 Future Tourism Development
In Maharashtra, the primary government agency responsible
for tourism growth and development is the Maharashtra Tourism
Development Corporation (MTDC). MTDC has been from i ts year
of inception working to boost the tourism industry in the state. With
the main thrust, to market Maharashtra as a premier global tourism
destination, thereby generating employment and enhancing
productivity through tourism, the award -winning promo tion
campaign –‘Maharashtra Unlimited’, has been created by MTDC.
It aims to highlight the unlimited potential of the state. MTDC’s
budget outlet for tourism has increased ten -fold as compared to its
previous budget. Its present budget of Rs. 101 crore sh a sb e e n
allocated for restoration of caves, initiating wildlife and ecotourism
in the Vidarbha region and for publicity and promotion activities, a
clear seven -fold increase over the previous years.
Check Your Progress
1.How does the Tourism industry ben efit Maharashtra?
8.2 ECONOMY AND SOCIETY OF MAHARASHTRA
Maharashtra is located in the western region of India. It is
one of the most developed and wealthiest states with a booming
economy supported by modern infrastructure. Maharashtra is the
economic stronghold of India with the largest economy with a State
Income or Net State Domestic Product (NSDP) of over 35.29 billion
US Dollars in 2003 -04; this has expanded at a (CAGR) Compound
Annual Growth Rate of 11.1 percent amounting to 263.6 billion US
Dollars in 2015 -16. The State contributed over 2 percent of
(GSDP) Gross State Domestic Product in 2014 -15. The Foreign
Direct Investment flow is also led by Maharashtra. Out of all the FDI
received by the country, Maharashtra accounts for 46 percent in
2016. Major inflow is from the following sectors: real estate and
infrastructure, computer hardware and software, telecom, services,
motor vehicles and medicines.
The economic policies of the 1970s have given immense
impetus to the economy and infrastructure of the state. This is
supported by technology upgradatio n, identifying opportunities formunotes.in

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98investment, industrialization in rural areas, joint ventures and tie -
ups, etc. The state contributes to 35 percent of the country’s
automobile output. The capital of Maharashtra, Mumbai, has
evolved into a financial hub wi th several global banking and
financial institutions setting up bases in the city. Pune is known as
an educational hub. IT and electronics and (BPOs) Business
Process Outsourcing industries have flourished in recent years
giving a boost to the economy. The Bombay Stock Exchange,
India’s largest and Asia’s oldest stock exchange is located in
Mumbai. Maharashtra is the second largest exporter of software,
with software parks in Pune, Mumbai, Nashik, Aurangabad and
Kolhapur.
Financial hub of the country :Mumbai is considered as the
financial capital of the country. Mumbai has a concentration of
industries like the chemical industry, the cotton industry,
manufacturing, electricity, electrical machinery, transport
equipment. Along with the large scale i ndustries, there are certain
small scale industries like the handloom, power loom, dyeing and
printing, blacksmithing, carpentry, bricks and tile manufacturing.
Mumbai also houses a lot of film, television, and music
studios and production houses. The F TII-Film and Television
Institute of India (Pune) is a school teaching all genres of film
making and appreciation. The film industry in India is the second
oldest in the world and is one of the fastest growing industries,
growing at the rate of 11.2 perc ent each year.
Agriculture: Agriculture is the predominant occupation of the
state. More than 60 percent of the population of Maharashtra is
involved in agriculture and other professions which are indirectly
related to agriculture. The main food crops of the region are
mangoes, grapes, bananas, oranges, wheat, rice, jowar, bajra, and
pulses. Cash crops include groundnut, cotton, sugarcane, turmeric,
and tobacco. The total irrigated area which has been used for crop
cultivation is 33,500 sq kms. Duri ng 2015 -16, Maharashtra became
one of the leading producers of sugarcane and cotton in the
country. As per the budget provisions of 2016 -17, the state
government aims to set up new textile units in the cotton growing
areas of the state.
Industries: Maharashtra is the most industrialized state in India
with a contribution of 23 percent to the national economy. Sugar
industry in Maharashtra is a cooperative. The state has a long
history in textiles. Poultry development, dairy development,
chemical and allied products, electrical and non -electrical
machinery, petroleum and allied products are the main industries in
Maharashtra. Aurangabad and Pune are known for auto
components. Chappals (footwear) in Kolhapur, cotton seeds inmunotes.in

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99Akola, Pharmaceuticals in Aurangabad, Power looms in Malegaon,
Bhiwandi and Nagpur contribute to the industrialized state.
Infrastructure: The economic infrastructure of the state includes
airports, roads, railways, power, telecom, and ports. Maharashtra
boasts of four internat ional and seven domestic airports, 2 major
and 53 minor ports, a well developed power supply grid are all
boosters to the economy of the state. The social infrastructure
includes education and training, health services and tourism. The
state is rich in h istorical, natural and cultural heritage, which gives
Maharashtra a huge potential for tourism. Ancient caves at Ajanta,
Ellora, Elephanta, numerous forts, hill stations, religious tourism,
beaches as well as adventure tourism fetch a substantial economic
turnover for the state.
8.3 FOOD CULTURE OF MAHARASHTRA
The State of Maharashtra is blessed with natural resources
and nature’ s bounties. It has a diverse geographical climate with
tropical forests, rugged mountains, plains and plateaus with rich
black alluvial soil, rivers and also some arid areas. This ecological
diversity supports a variety of crops, fruits and vegetables in the
state. The food of Maharashtra is conservative at the same time it
is replete with aroma, flavor and colour. The diverse geography
provides a wide array of vegetarian and non -vegetarian food in all
forms. Maharashtra comprises five regions which pr ovide the
requisite flavor to the foods, viz; Konkan, Paschim Maharashtra,
Khandesh, Vidarbha and Marathwada. The predominant
agricultural produce of the region determines the cuisine of each
region. There are some localized varieties like the Malvali cu isine
from the coastal Sindhudurg district and Saoji cuisine from Nagpur
district.
8.3.1 Region wise Food Specialties
a) Konkan: Mumbai, the capital of Maharashtra along with five
coastal districts of Thane, Palghar, Raigad, Ratnagiri and
Sindhudurg, t ogether comprising the Konkan region. The region’s
produce is varied such as rice especially of the ambemohar variety,
vegetables, lentils, millets and seasonal fruits like Chikoo, Mango,
Jackfruit, Cashewnut, Betel Nut and Coconut. Fishing is an
importa nt means of earning a livelihood along the entire Konkan
coast. Rice is the staple food of people from the coastal Konkan
region. With an abundance of coconut trees, wet coconut and
coconut milk are used in many dishes. Local varieties of rice
include t he fragrant ambemohar in western Maharashtra. For the
vegetarians it is served as Varan Bhaat, (steamed rice with plain
dal and served with lemon juice, salt and ghee) For special
occasions, Masalebhat (spiced mix of rice and vegetables) is
served. Koka m is used as a souring agent instead of lime, vinegarmunotes.in

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100or tamarind. Vegetarian dishes such as Ukdiche Modak (steamed
rice dumplings with a filling of coconut and jaggery, flavoured
cardamom powder), Valachi Usal (broad beads in thick gravy),
Bharleli Vangi (stuffed brinjal), Kajuchi Usal (tender cashew nuts in
thick gravy), Puran Poli, Ghavne (dosa variant) are from the
Konkan region.
Popular non -vegetarian dishes are Kalvan (fish curry), fried
fish, Kolambi Masala (Prawns Masala), Khekda (Crab Masala),
and sundried fish dishes like sukat, sode and javla. Indigenous
communities of Maharashtra such as the Agri, Kolis have their own
distinct cuisine. In south Konkan, near Malvan, there is Malvani
cuisine which comprises predominantly non -vegetarian fare, such
as Tikhla (spiced fish gray), Kombdi Vade (deep fried puris made
from mixed millets) and eaten with Chicken curry. The non -
vegetarian fare is washed down with Solkadi (a popular after meal
cooler) in the Konkan region.
b) Paschim Maharashtra (Deccan Plateau)
The Deccan Plateau region comprises districts of Pune,
Ahmednagar, Satara, Sangli, Solapur and Kolhapur. The region
consists of plains rich with black alluvial soil. The staple grains of
the Deccan Plateau have bee n millets, jowar and bajra. These
crops grow well in dry and drought -prone regions. There is
abundant milk production along with sugarcane, fruits and
vegetables, onions and potatoes. The traditional staple on the
Deccan plateau (Desh) is usually bread k nown as bhakri (bread
made of millets or rice), spiced cooked vegetables, dal and rice.
Popular dishes like bhel, missal, kat vada, pithale bhakri and
thalipeeth are from this region. The popular non -vegetarian fare is
Kolhapuri Tambda (Red) and Pandhara (White) Mutton Rassa and
is eaten with bhakri.
c) Marathwada region
Marathwada consists of seven districts of Aurangabad,
Latur, Osmanabad, jalna, Beed, Parbhani and Nanded. Prior to the
rise of the Maratha empire, this region was largely under the
Muslim rule and thus their cuisine reflects Moghlai influence.
Marathwada is popular for its Biryani and Pulao. The cuisine of
Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, both bordering states, also have
influenced food in Marathwada region.
d) Khandesh region
Khandesh consists of four districts of Nashik, Jalgaon, Dhule
and Nandurbar. Grapes and bananas are the most popular
products of this region, besides production of milk and sugarcane,
groundnuts and brinjals. The popular vegetarian dishes of
Khandesh are Shev Bh aji, Vangyache Bharit (smoked, spicy
mashed brinjal), Khandesh Khichadi, Golyachi Bhaji and Gulachimunotes.in

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101Puri (sweet puri). Popular non -vegetarian dishes are Khandeshi
Kala (Black) Masala chicken or mutton curry.
e) Vidarbha region
Thirteen districts of Bul dana, Washim, Hingoli, Akola,
Amravati, Nagpur, Yavatmal, Wardha, Bhandara, Gondia and
Gadchiroli form the Vidarbha region. The cuisine of this region is
referred to as the Varhadi cuisine. It uses spices, dry coconut and
besan as key ingredients. The mo st popular Saoji dish is the
Varhadi Rassa which is spice chicken or mutton in thick gravy
(rassa). Patodi Rassa Bhaji, Kalnyachi bhakri, Vada Bhaat and
Varhadi Thecha constitute the staple diet of this region. In the
Vidarbha region, little coconut is used in daily preparations but dry
coconut and peanuts are used in dishes.
Check Your Progress
1.Name a few maharashtrian delicacies.
2.Maharashtra is the financial hub. Do you agree with the
statement?
8.4 CONCLUSION
Maharashtra has embodied the word ‘Maha’ or great with
perfection and elegance in diverse spheres of human development
and human imagination. It has proved its prowess in several
creative fields, from cinema, art music to theatre. The commercial
capital o fI n d i a ,M u m b a i ,h a si t so w nf l a v o ra n dc o n t r i b u t i o nt ot h e
economy. The cultural richness of the state along with its economy,
society, food culture and folk art, all contribute to tourism in the
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1028.5 SUMMARY
Maharashtra, one of India’ s premier commercial and
industrial states, has recognized tourism to be a major thrust for
economic growth in the state.
The award -winning promotion campaign –‘Maharashtra
Unlimited’, has been created by MTDC which aims to highlight the
unlimited potent ial of the state.
Maharashtra is recognized as the economic capital of the
country. Major inflow is from the following sectors: real estate and
infrastructure, computer hardware and software, telecom, services,
motor vehicles and medicines.
Maharashtra is a melting pot of myriad cultures, and a
perfect blend of tradition and modernity.
Festivals and lavish celebrations are regular among the
people of Maharashtra. Ganesh Chaturthi, Gudi Padwa are some
of the celebrations that span across the length and breadth of the
state.
Folk music forms like Gondhal, Lavani, Bharud and Powada
represent a slide of the culture of a particular region.
Maharashtra has a rich tradition of folk art, which is centuries
old and has lived through various stages of revival, such a Warli art.
The ecological diversity of Maharashtra supports a variety of crops,
fruits and vegetables in the state. The food is conservative at the
same time it is replete with aroma, flavor and colour. Cuisines from
various regions; Konkan, Decc an Plateau, Marathwads, Khandesh
and Vidarbha are unique to its history and climate.
8.6 QUESTIONS
1.Discuss the potential for tourism in Maharashtra with reference
to the new Tourism Policy of Maharashtra.
2.Discuss the characteristics of sp ecial tourism zones of
Maharashtra.
3.Examine the features of the economy and society of
Maharashtra.
4.Elaborate on the culture of Maharashtra with respect to food,
festivals and folk art.munotes.in

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1038.7 REFERENCES
●Maharashtra Ahead, Vol.5, Issues 02, February 201 7.
●Maharashtra Development Report (2007): Planning
Commission
●https://travelfreak.me/2014/07/07/food -culture -of-maharashtra/
●https://www.mapsofindia.com/maps/maharashtra/economy -and-
infrastructure.html
●Tourism Policy of Maharashtra, 2006, Government of
Maharashtra, Department
●of Tourism and Cultural Affairs.
●http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/file/mtdc -tourism -
policy -2016.pdf

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104Question Paper Pattern
1. All Questions are Compulsory (100 Marks)
2. All Questions Carry Equal Marks
3. Figures to the right indicates marks to a sub -question
Q1. Attempt Any 2 of the following Questions (Module I) 20 Marks
a.
b.
c.
Q2. Attemp t Any 2 of the following Questions (Module II) 20 Marks
a.
b.
c.
Q3. Attempt Any 2 of the following Questions (Module III) 20 Marks
a.
b.
c.
Q4. Attempt Any 2 of the following Questions (Module IV) 20 Marks
a.
b.
c.
Q5. Write Short Notes on Any 2 20 Marks
a.
b.
c.
d.
munotes.in